Section 2: Effective Cross-Cultural Communication

While all communication is complex, there are four key elements that are particularly important during communication with people from different cultural backgrounds:

1. Verbal behaviour (e.g., what we say and how we say it – this includes the use of language, including jargon, as well as factors such as the rate and volume of speech and tone of voice).
2. Non-verbal behaviour (this includes factors such as body language, eye contact, gestures and physical distance).
3. Communication style (this includes our ‘rules’ for conversation and preferred way of sharing and structuring information).
4. Values and attitudes (this includes our cultural assumptions and perspectives on the way things should be).

Barriers to communication can occur as a result of differences in any of these key elements of communication. For example, some common cross-cultural communication barriers include:

• Difficulties with language (e.g., one party speaks English and the other party does not understand or only possesses a minimal understanding of English).
• Problems associated with the use of jargon or slang (e.g., a worker might use industry terminology that the client is unfamiliar with or one person might use slang that the other person is unfamiliar with).
• Difficulties associated with the volume or pace of speech (e.g., one person may speak softly which could make it hard to hear them or they may feel anxious if the other person speaks loudly or rapidly).
• Differences between culturally appropriate non-verbal behaviours (e.g., one person maintaining eye contact and physical touch while speaking which may make the other person uncomfortable if these actions conflict with their cultural style of communication).
• Misunderstandings resulting from differences in cultural rules of conversation (e.g., one person may believe that it is inappropriate to voice disagreement and so will agree to a suggestion when in fact they are uncomfortable with it. Alternatively, one person may believe that it is inappropriate to discuss certain matters without first discussing other matters and the other person may perceive them to be uncooperative or evasive.).
• Differences in cultural practices regarding acceptable types of communication between people (e.g., some cultures have particular rules regarding appropriate interactions between males and females and in some cases it may be inappropriate for a male worker to work with a female client or vice versa).

The following case study provides an example of how diversity can impact communication:

Cultural Diversity Tips for communicating with cultural awareness

This video provides insight on how to communicate effectively using cultural awareness. 

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In order for successful cross-cultural communication to occur, workers must develop skills that will help them communicate constructively with others, in conjunction with flexibility to adapt their strategies to suit the individual’s cultural needs. Apart from continually developing awareness of your own and your clients’ worldviews, some important skills for cross-cultural communication include:

• Monitor for own reactions during communication for any anxiety or defensiveness.
• Use a range of verbal and nonverbal behaviour responses or approaches to suit client’s cultural context.
• Identify when a language barrier exists and be prepared to adapt strategies and/or seek assistance to meet the person’s communication needs.
• Recognise and be open about own limitations and seek support where necessary.
• Demonstrate genuine respect to clients’ cultural beliefs, values, and identities.

It is vital that you demonstrate cultural competence in all communications with clients, their families, your co-workers, and anyone else you may come into contact with. Respect must be demonstrated in all aspects of communications including verbal, nonverbal (e.g., gestures, facial expressions, posture) and written communication (this includes all organisational communications as well as things such as signage in the work environment).

For effective cross-cultural communication, you will need to consider the following:

• What is the other party’s proficiency in your language?
• What is the other party’s preferred style of conversation?
• What impact is each of your non-verbal communication styles having on the conversation?
• How can you best integrate your and the other party’s diverse communication preferences?
• How can you demonstrate respect for the other party?

Being aware of how we communicate with others will go a long way to ensuring effective interactions. However, the differences that exist between people means that communication is not always smooth and sometimes barriers to communication can exist.

One commonly occurring barrier is the presence of a language barrier. You want to be able to get your message across in a respectful way while ensuring that the person understands. Even when the other person speaks English, if English is their second language and you do not adapt your approach, problems can arise. As such, it is important to adapt your approach to communicating when a language barrier exists. The exact strategies you will use to alter your communication will depend upon the severity of the barrier. However, some strategies that you might like to use when communicating with someone who speaks English as a second language include:

Speaking slowly and enunciating words clearly (however, it is important not to speak too slowly or treat the other party as though they are a child).

• Avoiding the use of jargon.
• Rephrasing any words that are not understood.
• Speaking in clear, simple and direct English (e.g., avoid long or difficult words).
• Speak in short rather than complex sentences.
• Pausing to check for understanding by seeking a response from the other party.
• Asking for clarification and seeking feedback if you are unsure of the other party’s message.
• Using appropriate gestures and facial expressions to support your verbal meaning.
• Using resources within your organisation such as bi-lingual colleagues and having commonly used resources printed in the common language of clients.
• The use of international signage and symbols.
• The use of interpreters.

cultural diversity in communication

This video provides suggestions on how to communicate effectively in a culturally diverse workplace.

A Note on Using Interpreters

If there is a significant language barrier it is important to use a professional interpreter. As an AOD worker, you should identify in the assessment process whether your client requires an interpreter. Sometimes it might not be immediately apparent that the client requires an interpreter because they have a basic level of English comprehension; however, you must always assess the level of the client’s language ability and act accordingly.

Most counselling and community services organisations will have established processes and procedures for the use of interpreters. However, if you are ever working for an organisation that does not, the Australian Government provides a Translating and Interpreting Service (TIS) which is accessible at: www.tisnational.gov.au/ The following extract provides some important tips from the TIS to help practitioners get the best out of their interpreting service.

Remember that the interpreter does not necessarily an understanding of your role and the work you are trying to achieve with a client. It is important to briefly introduce yourself and brief the interpreter on the purpose of the conversation and any important terminology or information. Be prepared, too, to allow more time for the session, or additional sessions where required to make sure information is communicated as accurately and efficiently as possible.

Another important aspect of effective cross-cultural communication is the ability to recognise when miscommunication occurs and resolve it sensitively with consideration to diversity factors.

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Developing cultural competency requires ongoing reflection and learning – sometimes through situation of conflict. Particularly if culturally appropriate work practices are not used effectively, there is a potential for conflict, misunderstandings, or communication difficulties. As such, an important skill relevant to working with diverse people is conflict resolution. Where difficulties or misunderstandings occur, it is important to consider the impact that diversity factors might have in the conflict – though it may not be the only factor.

Potential diversity-related causes of conflict are outlined in the diagram below.

If you experience conflict with a client or co-worker, it is important to consider the possible impact of cultural factors in this conflict. If you believe cultural differences to be the cause of the conflict, then conflict resolution should be completed in a sensitive manner. If the conflict is a minor one, it can be best to be open and honest with the individual when the problem arises. Even stating the fact that you seem to be having a conflict (or difference of opinion) can prompt a frank and honest discussion of your differences and possibly resolve the issue before it becomes a larger problem.

Essentially, the steps involved in cross-cultural conflict resolution include:

1. Identify the presence of conflict. This involves using your basic communication and self-awareness skills to identify areas of emotional reaction, discomfort and conflict within interpersonal interactions.
2. Define the nature of the conflict. This involves having each party communicate their perspective on the issue. To resolve any miscommunication, all parties need to voice their perspective of the problem – just like communication, resolution is not one sided – instead both parties need to share their reactions and perspective on the situation in order to find a way forward. Ensure that each party gains an understanding of the other’s perspective.
3. Resolve the conflict. Once each party has an understanding of the other’s perspective and the true nature of the conflict, it is important to resolve the conflict. Depending upon the nature of the conflict there are a number of conflict resolution strategies that may be appropriate, such as:
   • Each party accepting their part in the conflict and offering apologies where appropriate.
   • Mutually deciding upon the best course of action in order to resolve the conflict as soon as possible.
   • The use of mediation to assist in negotiating a compromise or resolution to the conflict.
4. Implement strategies to prevent similar conflicts in the future. This involves learning from the conflict, sharing your insights with others, and making changes at both an individual and organisational level to ensure that similar conflicts do not reoccur.

In situations of extreme conflict, situations of heightened emotions, or in situations where the individual parties cannot resolve the conflict themselves, it might be more appropriate to seek mediation in order to resolve the conflict.

Consider the following case study adapted from Arnott (2020, pp. 104-105) and the following reflective questions:

Case Study

John has been taking a lot of time off, without giving sufficient notice to Carol, his team leader. As a result, Carol has found it difficult to cover the roster with agency staff. She is annoyed because she thinks that John is unprofessional and should be giving his work a much higher priority. Carol has hardly taken a sick day in 15 years. The fact that John has volunteered to forfeit a day’s pay is irrelevant. Carol has been brought up to have a strong work ethic. As a child, if she was ill, she can still remember her parents forcing her to go to school and only allowing her to come home later if she felt unwell.

At a staff meeting, Carol criticised John for letting the team down, which has now led to a breakdown in the working relationship between John and Carol.

In this case study, Carol’s and John’s behaviours resembled their own cultural values, expectations, and worldview. Without awareness and consideration of these ‘differences’, Carol and John were prone to negatively interpret each other’s words and behaviours, and acting accordingly. Fortunately for Carol and John in the case study above, their manager, Gerry was equipped with sufficient mediation skills and awareness of the cultural diversity at play. He made an effort to sensitively resolve the differences between Carol and John, taking into account the diversity factors.

It may not always be straightforward to resolve cross-cultural misunderstandings. However, there are resources to assist you. It will be your responsibility to seek appropriate help to meet the client’s needs, to meet your responsibilities as a practitioner or work colleague, to develop your cultural competency, and to contribute to a workplace that accepts and reflects cultural diversity. Some options available to you include:

• Access local organisations that are a cultural match to your client or colleague in order to learn more about that culture.
• Engage the services of a professional language or cultural interpreter.
• Speak to more experienced colleagues and managers in your workplace.
• Speak to your professional supervisor.
• Undertake training that will help develop your cultural competency.

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Diversity factors impact upon service provision. When working with clients from diverse backgrounds, AOD workers need to be mindful of diversity factors and the impact that these can have on clients and their needs. As we briefly mentioned earlier in the Study Guide, individuals from minority groups whose experiences are different to those of the majority often experience a decreased sense of belonging, discrimination, social exclusion, communication issues, and reduced educational and employment opportunities. This can result in certain groups of people being marginalised politically, socially, economically, and culturally.

To help you better understand the impacts that diversity can have in the context of service provision, let’s consider the impacts of social, political, and economic issues faced by Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander peoples on their experiences and communication.

A Note on Working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians have rich cultures spanning thousands of years. Though they are often mentioned alongside one another, there is vast diversity within these communities – there are hundreds of traditional tribal groups, each with their own language. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have been greatly impacted by Western colonisation. Since colonisation, various government legislation and practices have contributed to their experiences of social and economic disadvantages. The effects of various policies (such as assimilation policies and the stolen generation in which children were removed from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander families) have left lasting, inter-generational impacts that, to this day, influence how clients from these communities perceive government and community services as a whole. As such, practitioners who work with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander clients must develop an understanding of the history and context of colonisation and its impact on social and emotional wellbeing issues experienced by the clients.

These experiences can impact the way in which clients approach and interact with service providers. For example, if a client has previously been discriminated against, harassed, or abused because of their cultural identities, then it is likely that the client will be more guarded and perhaps even less interested in working cooperatively with AOD workers. It is also not uncommon for clients to exhibit posttraumatic responses, such as inability to trust, make decisions, difficulties in retrieving or retaining information, or exhibit of intensive emotional reactions, if the service provider or environment triggered memories of past negative experiences. Without an understanding of the historical and social context, such responses or behaviours in clients may be interpreted as ‘uncooperative’ or ‘challenging’ which can result in a client being turned away from services, in turn reduces their likelihood of engaging with services again.

In addition, many of the current systems and structures in existing human services are developed based on dominant culture, which lack of capacity to acknowledge and accommodate clients’ cultural needs and practices. For instance, decision making in Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander cultures (as well as other collectivistic cultures) often involve consultation with other family or kinship members. This is not a norm in the existing service approaches where individuals are expected to make their own decision. On the other hand, while some clients may benefit from working with a worker from their own culture, it is important not to make such assumption. Many will not want to see a worker of their own culture or community due to shame and confidentiality issues. As such, it is important to clarify and incorporate clients’ cultural needs and preferences in order to demonstrate respect for diversity and provide a culturally safe and inclusive service.

According to Queensland Health (2015), some common communication practices that health and community services workers should be aware of when working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander clients include:

• Rapport building is essential for and prior to establishing a working relationship.
• Beware of and address language barriers. Avoid complex words and jargon, and make sure you explain the rationale for asking questions and check client’s understanding.
• Perception of time may be different. Consider incorporating flexibility in consultation times.
• Some non-verbal communication cues (e.g., hand gestures, and facial expression) may be interpreted differently by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.
• Make sure there is appropriate personal space between you and client, particularly if you are of the opposite gender.
• Where touch is necessary, it is important to seek client’s permission and provide explanation.
• Respect client’s need for silent pauses, which can be a way to listen, show respect or consensus.
• Direct eye contact may not be appropriate. Avert or lower eyes in conversation.
• Client may use terms ‘Aunty’ or ‘Uncle’ to show respect for someone older who may not be a blood relative or an Elder.
• Avoid discussion of private or personal information in open and public spaces.
• Longer time/session may be required due to a narrative communication style. Active listening skills are important for showing empathy and clarification.
• Use indirect questioning approach (such as, frame a question as a statement and allow time for response).
• Be mindful that clients may respond with a ‘yes’ even if they do not understand or agree with you.
• Always provide clear and full explanations.
• Discuss options available and avoid making empty promises.
• Where a decision needs to make, understand that a client may need to consult with other family members, and allow time and space for that to take place.

The list above, and Reading D, provides a number of considerations when working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander clients. Consider this information in relation to the following case study.

Case Study

Josef is a 62-year-old Aboriginal man who has been referred to a counsellor, Shelley, a 31-year-old female counsellor of European decent. Josef was recently thrown out of a bank for becoming aggressive with the teller when the teller said that he did not have enough money in his account to pay a bill. Josef has been referred to counselling by his case manager to help him learn some strategies to better manage his anger.

The counsellor, Shelley, immediately asks Josef for details regarding the reasons for his referral. Joseph shifts uncomfortably in his seat and gives very brief answers to Shelley’s questions. Throughout this questioning, Shelley seeks eye contact with Josef but he keeps looking away from her, which makes Shelley believe that Josef is being uncooperative.

Shelley continues to try to make eye contact and continues to try to get Josef to explain his financial situation and the reasons for his referral. Soon Shelley becomes frustrated and tells Joseph that there is nothing she can do to help him if he will not cooperate with her. Josef leaves the counsellor’s office feeling frustrated.

While there are many potential answers to the questions in the above self-reflective exercise, you would have hopefully identified that Shelly engaged in a number of culturally inappropriate communication practices. It is clear that Shelly did not consider Josef’s cultural background or take the time to consider and address their cultural differences. For example, Josef’s cultural background suggests that direct questioning and direct eye contact might not be appropriate; however, Shelly did not check to see if this was making Josef uncomfortable.

In addition, Shelley did not consider whether Josef was comfortable immediately speaking about his needs with a younger female counsellor who he has never met before and knew nothing about. Shelley also placed her focus on the reasons for the referral rather than on Josef’s story, which may have brought up previous issues of discrimination or inappropriate service provision which may have impacted upon his ability to trust Shelley. It is clear that this conflict could have been avoided if Shelly had possessed more cultural competence and took the time to explore their cultural differences and adapt her approach.

Of course, experiences of diversity are not always negative. Clients will have a wide range of positive experiences associated with their diversity that AOD workers should also take the time to understand because these can be incorporated into effective service provision. For example, the experience of being part of a close cultural group can be a protective factor for a client (e.g., the client can derive strength and a sense of belonging from their diversity). When working with any client, the goal is to understand any protective factors and help the client draw on them to improve their own circumstances.

How diversity impacts on the counselling relationship

The presenters in tis video discuss what it means to ensure equality and diversity in counselling. 

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In this section you have learned strategies to help you communicate effectively with diverse people. This includes identifying issues that can cause communication misunderstandings and how these issues can be resolved. By utilising this knowledge in your interactions with others, you are likely to be a more effective communicator, and work efficiently in your role.

1. Arnott, G. (2020). The disability support worker (3rd ed.). Cengage Learning Australia.
2. Queensland Health. (2015). Communicating effectively with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. https://www.health.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0021/151923/communicating.pdf
3. Translating and Interpreting Service. (n.d.). Working with TIS National interpreters. Retrieved on January 5, 2022, from https://www.tisnational.gov.au/en/Agencies/Help-using-TIS-National-services/Working-with-TIS-National-interpreters