Observe and record animal behaviour

1. Basic concept of genetics 

Genes

• Genes are the basic units of heredity, made of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid). Each gene carries instructions for producing proteins, which perform a wide range of functions in the body.
• In animals, genes determine traits like fur color, ear shape, eye color, and even behavioral tendencies like aggression or calmness.

• Genes are located on structures called chromosomes, which are found in the nucleus of every cell.
• Animals inherit chromosomes in pairs, with one set coming from each parent. Most animals have a specific number of chromosomes that varies by species (e.g., humans have 46, dogs have 78, cats have 38).
• Chromosomes are divided into autosomes (which determine most body traits) and sex chromosomes (which determine an animal’s sex).

• DNA is the molecule that carries genetic information. It is structured as a double helix and contains the instructions that govern how organisms develop, function, and reproduce.
• DNA is composed of four chemical bases (Adenine [A], Thymine [T], Cytosine [C], and Guanine [G]), which pair together (A with T, and C with G) to form the genetic code.

2. How inheritance works 

• Alleles are different versions of the same gene. For example, in dogs, there may be different alleles for coat colour (black vs. brown).
• Some alleles are dominant, meaning they will be expressed if present (e.g., black fur in dogs may be dominant). Others are recessive, meaning they will only be expressed if an animal inherits two copies of the recessive allele (e.g., a dog must inherit two copies of a brown fur gene to have brown fur).
• Homozygous refers to an individual that has two copies of the same allele (e.g., both black fur genes), while heterozygous refers to an individual with one dominant and one recessive allele (e.g., one black and one brown gene).

• Gregor Mendel first described the basic principles of inheritance through his experiments with pea plants. These principles apply to animals as well.

• Law of Segregation: Each parent contributes one allele for each gene, and offspring inherit one from each parent.
• Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits (e.g., coat colour and tail length) are inherited independently of each other, allowing for genetic variation.

• A Punnett square is a diagram used to predict the genetic makeup (genotype) and appearance (phenotype) of offspring based on the genes of the parents.
• For example, if a black-furred dog (heterozygous) is bred with a brown-furred dog (homozygous recessive), a Punnett square can help predict the possible fur colours of their puppies.

3. Types of Traits 

• Traits controlled by a single gene are called monogenic traits. These are usually straightforward to predict in terms of inheritance.
• Example: Coat colour in some breeds of animals, where one gene controls the colour.

• Polygenic traits are controlled by multiple genes, which makes them more complex to predict.
• Example: Height, body size, and behaviour are often polygenic in animals.

• Co-dominance: Both alleles are expressed equally. For example, in some cattle breeds, you might see a mix of red and white hairs.
• Incomplete Dominance: Neither allele is completely dominant, resulting in a blending of traits. For instance, crossing red and white flowers might produce pink offspring.

4. Genetic Variation 

Genetic variation is essential for the survival and evolution of species. It arises through several mechanisms:

• Mutations: Random changes in a gene's DNA sequence can lead to new traits. Some mutations are beneficial, while others may cause diseases.
• Recombination: During reproduction, chromosomes exchange segments of DNA, which can produce new genetic combinations in offspring.
• Gene Flow: The movement of genes between populations, such as through migration, introduces new genetic material to a population.

5. Selective Breeding in Animals

Selective breeding is a process where humans control the mating of animals to produce offspring with desired traits. This practice has been used for thousands of years to enhance or reduce specific characteristics.

• Breeding for Traits: Farmers or breeders may select animals with desirable traits (such as milk production in cows, speed in horses, or temperament in dogs) and breed them to pass on those traits to their offspring.
• Line Breeding vs. Crossbreeding:
• Line Breeding: Mating animals that are closely related (within the same bloodline) to reinforce desirable traits.
• Crossbreeding: Mating animals from different breeds to combine desirable traits from both parents.

6. Genetic Disorders in Animals

Just like humans, animals can inherit genetic disorders. These are often the result of mutations or the inheritance of recessive genes.

• Inherited Disorders: Many genetic disorders are recessive, meaning animals need two copies of the defective gene to express the disorder. Common examples include hip dysplasia in dogs or progressive retinal atrophy in certain cat breeds.
• Breed-Specific Diseases: Certain diseases are more prevalent in specific breeds due to selective breeding practices. For instance, brachycephalic dogs (such as bulldogs) are prone to breathing issues due to their shortened skull structure.

7. Application of Animal Genetics

• Conservation: Genetics helps conserve endangered species by maintaining genetic diversity and preventing inbreeding in small populations.
• Cloning: Genetic cloning of animals is used in research and agriculture to replicate animals with desirable traits.
• Gene Editing: Emerging technologies, like CRISPR, allow for precise modifications to an animal’s genetic code to enhance health, reduce disease, or improve production traits in agriculture.

8. Epigenetics in Animals

Epigenetics refers to changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations to the DNA sequence itself. Environmental factors such as diet, stress, or toxins can cause genes to be "turned on" or "turned off."

Example: A cow's milk production may be influenced by its environment and diet, even though its genetic potential for milk production remains unchanged.

Habituation

• Definition: Habituation occurs when an animal becomes accustomed to a repeated, neutral stimulus and stops responding to it. The animal "learns" that the stimulus poses no threat or significance.
• Example: Birds in a city may initially be scared of humans but will eventually stop flying away as they get used to human presence.

Classical Conditioning

• Definition: Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with a significant one so the animal learns to respond to the neutral stimulus similarly.
• Example: In Pavlov’s famous experiment, dogs learned to associate the sound of a bell with food, so they started salivating at the sound of the bell, even without food present.

Operant Conditioning (Trial and Error Learning)

• Definition: Animals learn to associate a behaviour with a consequence, such as a reward or punishment. This type of learning involves the animal trying different actions and learning from the results.
• Example: A dog may learn to sit on command if it’s consistently rewarded with treats when it sits. On the flip side, it might stop jumping on people if it’s consistently ignored or scolded when it jumps.

Observational Learning

• Definition: Animals can learn by watching and mimicking the behaviour of others. This is particularly common in social animals, where young animals observe and imitate adults.
• Example: Young chimpanzees learn how to use tools by watching older chimpanzees use sticks to extract termites from a mound.

Imprinting

• Definition: Imprinting is a form of learning that occurs at a specific life stage and is often irreversible. It usually happens early in an animal’s life and helps them identify important individuals (like parents) or places.
• Example: Ducklings will imprint on and follow the first moving object they see after hatching, typically their mother, but they can also imprint on humans if that’s their first contact.

Availability of Resources

• Example: A herd of deer may alter its migration patterns if a drought depletes food and water resources in their typical range.

• Example: Birds in urban environments often adapt by nesting in buildings instead of trees.

Climate and Seasons

• Example: Some animals hibernate during winter (bears) or migrate to warmer climates (birds, whales).

Habitat

• Example: Fish living in fast-moving rivers will have different swimming and feeding behaviours compared to fish in still ponds.

• Example: Foxes and raccoons may change their feeding behaviours, becoming more nocturnal and scavenging for human food in urban areas.

Social Environment

• Example: Wolves in a pack have well-established social structures, where dominant individuals eat first and control group activities like hunting.

Human Influence 

• Example: Dogs have been domesticated to respond to commands and coexist peacefully with humans, whereas wild animals often remain fearful or aggressive toward people.

• Example: Zoo animals may exhibit different behaviours in captivity, such as pacing, due to the lack of natural stimuli and space.

Environmental Enrichment

• Example: Enrichment activities, like hiding food in puzzles or introducing new objects, encourage captive animals like monkeys to use problem-solving skills similar to those they’d use in the wild.

1. Grooming

• Normal Behavior: Cats spend a significant portion of their day grooming themselves. This keeps their coat clean, regulates body temperature, and helps them relax.
• Function: Grooming also plays a role in scent-marking, as cats spread their natural oils across their fur during the process.
• When to Watch: Over-grooming can indicate stress or skin problems, while reduced grooming may be a sign of illness or discomfort.

1. Social Interaction

• Normal Behavior: Dogs are social creatures that seek attention and interaction from both humans and other animals. They engage in behaviours like tail wagging, licking, and leaning against people or other dogs to express affection or seek attention.
• Function: Social interaction provides dogs with a sense of belonging and security, and it strengthens their bonds within a group.
• When to Watch: If a dog becomes withdrawn or aggressive toward others, it could signal fear, anxiety, or illness.

2. Scratching

• Normal Behavior: Cats scratch surfaces like furniture or scratching posts to sharpen their claws, mark territory, and stretch their muscles.
• Function: This is both a physical and communicative behaviour, as cats leave scent marks and visible scratch marks to signal their presence.
• When to Watch: Excessive scratching of inappropriate objects may suggest boredom or lack of environmental enrichment.

2. Barking and Vocalizing

• Normal Behavior: Dogs bark, growl, whine, or howl as forms of communication. Barking can signal excitement, a warning, or a way of seeking attention, while growling can indicate discomfort or defence.
• Function: Vocalizations serve as a way to communicate with humans and other animals.
• When to Watch: Excessive barking may suggest boredom, anxiety, or over-stimulation, while constant whining could indicate distress or physical discomfort.

3. Play and Hunting

• Normal Behavior: Cats are natural hunters, and even indoor cats exhibit hunting behaviours through play, such as pouncing, chasing, and batting at toys.
• Function: These behaviours mimic hunting practices and provide mental and physical stimulation.
• When to Watch: Reduced playfulness, especially in younger cats, may indicate boredom, depression, or health problems.

3. Play and Chewing

• Normal Behavior: Dogs engage in play, often mimicking hunting or chasing behaviours. Chewing is a natural activity, especially for puppies and young dogs, to explore their environment and keep their jaws strong.
• Function: Play helps dogs practice social skills and expend energy. Chewing also relieves stress and keeps teeth healthy.
• When to Watch: Destructive chewing, particularly when left alone, may indicate separation anxiety, boredom, or lack of appropriate chew toys.

4. Territoriality and Marking

• Normal Behavior: Cats are territorial animals and may rub their face (which contain scent glands) against objects, people, or other animals to mark their territory.
• Function: Scent-marking reassures the cat and communicates their presence to others.
• When to Watch: Spraying urine indoors, especially in neutered cats, can indicate stress, a lack of territory, or medical issues.

4. Digging

• Normal Behavior: Many dogs instinctively dig, especially certain breeds (like terriers), as part of their hunting or nesting behaviour.
• Function: In the wild, dogs dig to create cool spaces to lie in or to hide food.
• When to Watch: Excessive digging in inappropriate areas (e.g., garden beds or furniture) might indicate boredom, anxiety, or insufficient exercise.

5. Solitude and Sleep

• Normal Behavior: Cats can be very independent and will often seek out time alone. They also sleep for 12-16 hours a day, which is normal for them.
• Function: Solitude allows cats to recharge, while long sleep periods help conserve energy for their bursts of activity.
• When to Watch: If a normally social cat suddenly isolates themselves or a cat appears lethargic beyond typical sleep cycles, it could be a sign of illness or stress.

5. Tail Wagging

• Normal Behavior: Tail wagging is a key communicative behaviour in dogs, but its meaning depends on the context. A high, wagging tail can indicate excitement or alertness, while a low, slow wag may signal uncertainty or submission.
• Function: Tail wagging is a form of body language used to communicate emotions.
• When to Watch: A stiff, tucked tail combined with cowering may indicate fear or submission, while a rigid, upright tail with an intense wag might signal aggression or dominance.

6. Vocalizations

• Normal Behavior: Cats communicate through meows, purring, hissing, and chirping. Each vocalization serves a different purpose, like seeking attention, expressing contentment, or warning others.
• Function: Vocal communication is typically used more with humans than with other cats.
• When to Watch: Excessive meowing may indicate distress, hunger, or illness, especially in older cats (cognitive dysfunction can lead to increased vocalization).

6. Sleeping and Resting

• Normal Behavior: Dogs sleep for around 12-14 hours a day, though puppies and older dogs may sleep more. Dogs are known to shift between bursts of activity and long rest periods.
• Function: Resting helps dogs conserve energy, especially after physical activity.
• When to Watch: Significant increases in sleep or lethargy, or changes in sleep patterns, can be signs of health issues such as hypothyroidism, arthritis, or illness.

7. Pack Behavior and Hierarchy

• Normal Behavior: Dogs often establish a social hierarchy, even in multi-dog households, where some dogs will be more dominant and others more submissive. This can be seen in their play interactions and feeding behaviour.
• Function: Social hierarchies reduce conflict by establishing clear roles and relationships within the group.
• When to Watch: Aggressive dominance or continuous fighting may suggest stress, lack of proper socialization, or behavioural issues.

Excessive Grooming or Over-Grooming

• Abnormal Behavior: While grooming is normal for cats, excessive grooming—leading to bald patches, skin irritation, or sores—is a sign of an underlying issue.
• Causes: This behaviour is often linked to stress, anxiety, allergies, or skin infections. Cats might also over-groom if they are bored or if their environment is lacking in stimulation.
• When to Watch: Look for signs like red, irritated skin, hair loss, or a cat spending an excessive amount of time grooming a specific area.

1. Separation Anxiety

• Abnormal Behavior: Dogs with separation anxiety may exhibit behaviours like barking, whining, pacing, destructive chewing, or urinating/defecating indoors when left alone.
• Causes: This is often caused by an over-attachment to a specific person, changes in routine (e.g., returning to work after being at home), or moving to a new environment.
• When to Watch: If a dog becomes highly agitated or destructive when their owner leaves, it may need behavioural intervention or a calming routine.

2. Inappropriate Elimination

• Abnormal Behavior: Cats instinctively use litter boxes, but urinating or defecating outside the litter box is a sign of a problem.
• Causes: Inappropriate elimination can result from stress, changes in the environment (new pets, new people, moving), dirty litter boxes, or medical conditions like urinary tract infections (UTIs), bladder stones, or arthritis.
• When to Watch: Consistent accidents or frequent attempts to urinate (especially in male cats, which can indicate a urinary blockage) require immediate veterinary attention.

2. Aggression

• Abnormal Behavior: Unprovoked aggression, including growling, snapping, or biting, is abnormal in most domesticated dogs.
• Causes: This behaviour can stem from fear, pain, territorial instincts, lack of socialization, or resource guarding (protecting food, toys, or territory). Medical conditions such as hypothyroidism or injury can also cause sudden aggression.
• When to Watch: Sudden changes in a dog’s temperament should be evaluated by a veterinarian or behaviourist.

3. Aggression

• Abnormal Behavior: Aggression toward humans or other animals (biting, hissing, swatting) that seems out of character is a red flag.
• Causes: This could be due to fear, pain, territorial disputes, lack of socialization, or frustration. Cats in pain may act out aggressively when touched or approached.
• When to Watch: Sudden, unprovoked aggression can be a sign of illness, injury, or a stressful environment.

3. Destructive Chewing or Digging

• Abnormal Behavior: While chewing and digging are normal to some extent, excessive and destructive behaviors (such as chewing furniture or digging up gardens) are a concern.
• Causes: This may occur due to boredom, anxiety, frustration, or lack of exercise and mental stimulation.
• When to Watch: Excessive chewing or digging that happens suddenly, especially if accompanied by other stress behaviours like barking or pacing, may indicate anxiety or frustration.

4. Lethargy or Lack of Activity

• Abnormal Behavior: Cats that suddenly become lethargic, hide more than usual, or show a complete lack of interest in playing or interacting with their environment may be experiencing a problem.
• Causes: Lethargy can result from illness (e.g., infections, kidney disease, diabetes), depression, or stress.
• When to Watch: Monitor a cat that stops eating, drinking, or grooming, as these are signs that something more serious might be occurring.

4. Excessive Barking or Whining

• Abnormal Behavior: Dogs that bark or whine excessively—beyond what is considered normal communication—might be experiencing an issue.
• Causes: This behaviour can be triggered by boredom, anxiety, fear, or territorial instincts. Cognitive decline in older dogs may also lead to increased vocalization.
• When to Watch: If a normally quiet dog becomes excessively vocal, it might be a sign of discomfort, stress, or medical issues.

5. Excessive Vocalization

• Abnormal Behavior: While some cats are naturally talkative, sudden excessive meowing, howling, or yowling—especially at night—can signal an issue.
• Causes: Cats may vocalize excessively if they’re in pain, stressed, anxious, or suffering from cognitive dysfunction (more common in elderly cats). It can also indicate that they are feeling insecure or are trying to get attention.
• When to Watch: If a normally quiet cat suddenly becomes very vocal, or if vocalization is paired with other behaviours like pacing, it may warrant a visit to the vet.

5. Lethargy or Lack of Interest

• Abnormal Behavior: If a normally active and social dog becomes lethargic, avoids interaction, or refuses to play, it may indicate an underlying issue.
• Causes: Lethargy can be caused by illness, injury, pain, or depression. Conditions like arthritis, infections, or hypothyroidism can also lead to reduced energy.
• When to Watch: Lethargy paired with a lack of appetite, vomiting, or other physical symptoms should be checked by a vet.

6. Pacing or Restlessness

• Abnormal Behavior: A cat that constantly paces or seems restless, especially at night, may experience anxiety or discomfort.
• Causes: This behaviour can indicate pain, cognitive decline (in older cats), or stress due to environmental changes.
• When to Watch: Restlessness combined with vocalization or excessive grooming can be a sign of underlying physical or psychological issues.

6. Compulsive Behaviors

• Abnormal Behavior: Dogs may develop compulsive behaviours such as tail-chasing, excessive licking, spinning in circles, or pacing.
• Causes: These behaviours can result from anxiety, stress, boredom, or underlying neurological conditions. Compulsive behaviours often emerge in environments that lack stimulation or cause fear.
• When to Watch: If a dog repeats these actions frequently, consult a vet or behaviourist to rule out medical or behavioural issues.

7. Loss of Appetite or Excessive Eating

• Abnormal Behavior: A sudden decrease or increase in appetite is a cause for concern in cats.
• Causes: Loss of appetite can signal a variety of health issues, including dental problems, gastrointestinal disease, infections, or stress. Conversely, excessive eating could be a sign of underlying conditions like diabetes or hyperthyroidism.
• When to Watch: Pay attention to sudden changes in feeding habits, particularly if accompanied by weight loss or gain.

7. Loss of Appetite or Overeating

• Abnormal Behavior: Sudden changes in eating habits, whether eating too little or too much, can be signs of health issues.
• Causes: Loss of appetite in dogs can indicate illness, dental problems, gastrointestinal issues, or stress. Overeating could be linked to conditions like diabetes, Cushing’s disease, or lack of portion control.
• When to Watch: Sudden changes in appetite or unexplained weight changes should prompt a vet visit.

8. Excessive Panting or Restlessness

• Abnormal Behavior: While dogs pant to cool themselves down, excessive panting (especially when not hot) or restlessness can be signs of distress or pain.
• Causes: These behaviours may indicate anxiety, pain, or respiratory or cardiovascular issues.
• When to Watch: Persistent panting, especially without obvious cause (e.g., exercise, heat), is worth investigating.

Panting (in Dogs)

• Dogs may pant excessively, even when not hot or after minimal physical exertion, as a sign of stress or anxiety.
• Example: A dog panting during a thunderstorm when they would normally be calm indoors.

Aggression

• Animals under stress may show aggression toward humans or other animals, even when they usually have a calm demeanour.
• Example: A normally friendly cat suddenly hissing, swatting, or biting when approached by other pets or people.

• Increased Heart Rate

  • Stress can cause an increase in heart rate and respiration.
  • Example: A dog’s heart rate significantly increases during fireworks or a trip to the vet.

Dilated Pupils

• Cats and dogs often have dilated pupils when they are stressed, indicating heightened alertness or fear.
• Example: A cat’s eyes widen and pupils dilate in response to loud noises.

Hiding or Avoidance

• Stressed animals, especially cats, will often seek out hiding places and isolate themselves.
• Example: a cat hiding under the bed when visitors are around or a dog retreating to a crate when the home becomes noisy.

Excessive Shedding

• Stress may cause excessive shedding, especially in dogs, as a physiological response to anxiety.
• Example: A dog sheds significantly more than usual after moving to a new home.

Trembling or Shaking

• Animals, particularly dogs, may tremble or shake when they feel anxious or afraid.
• Example: A dog trembling in the vet’s office or during a car ride.

Excessive Vocalization

• Stressed cats may yowl or meow excessively, while dogs may bark, whine, or howl more frequently than usual.
• Example: A dog whining incessantly when left alone or a cat yowling throughout the night after a change in their routine.

Frequent Urination or Marking

• Cats and dogs may urinate more frequently or engage in inappropriate marking behaviours when stressed.
• Example: A cat urinating outside the litter box after a new pet or person enters the home, or a dog marking more often when introduced to a new environment.

Loss of Fur (Over-Grooming in Cats)

• Cats may over-groom themselves, pulling out fur, which can result in bald patches or skin sores. This is often a stress-related behaviour.
• Example: A cat constantly grooms its belly to the point of hair loss when adjusting to a new home.

Destructive Behavior

• Dogs and cats may become destructive when stressed, chewing, scratching, or clawing furniture, doors, or other items.
• Example: A dog chewing shoes or furniture when left alone, or a cat scratching walls or furniture excessively after moving to a new home.

Excessive Drooling

• Stress can cause dogs (and, less commonly, cats) to drool excessively.
• Example: A dog drooling during a visit to an unfamiliar environment or while riding in a car.

Pacing or Restlessness

• A stressed animal may pace back and forth or seem restless and unable to settle.
• Example: A dog pacing in circles when confined to a small space or during thunderstorms.

Digestive Issues

• Stress may lead to gastrointestinal problems like diarrhea, vomiting, or a loss of appetite in both cats and dogs.
• Example: A dog that refuses to eat after being left alone for an extended period or a cat that vomits when exposed to a loud environment.

Changes in Grooming Habits

• In cats, stress may cause over-grooming (leading to bald patches) or a complete lack of grooming, resulting in an unkempt appearance.
• Example: A normally clean and well-groomed cat stops grooming itself, indicating stress.