Assessing individuals and teams

Here, we will cover critical thinking 101. Let us start with what critical thinking is and what it involves.

Critical thinking is defined as:

• The ability to carefully evaluate and clarify knowledge and concepts, seek new possibilities and solve problems
• It is a deliberate, systematic, and logical way of thinking.

People who are critical thinkers question what they are being told and what they have read. Critical thinking is what we do when we process the information presented and question its validity. It is how we think by analysing, processing, and organising the information we take from our environment. Rather than just taking things at face value, it is about making sense of the information presented to make well-informed decisions to help us reach our objectives.

People who are critical thinkers demonstrate specific key attributes and freely exercise their right to ask questions.

Let us look at what critical thinkers can do and some common features of their dispositions.

Critical thinking concepts

Three concepts need to be considered when applying critical thinking strategies.

1. Analysis which involves:
   • Identifying what is being said or a problem.
   • Distinguishing between what is relevant and irrelevant
   • Connecting thought patterns
   • Identifying differences. (Margot Note, 2020)
2. Synthesis which involves:
   • Critical and creative thinking
   • Making connections between ideas, problems, and solutions
   • Combining experiences and knowledge to create something new
   • Flexible thinking
3. Evaluation which involves:
   • Providing a reason(s) for a decision
   • Judging the value and credibility of an argument
   • Understanding the meaning of important information. (Margot Note, 2020)

As we progress, you will see each concept's fundamental role through models and the critical and creative thinking journey.

Conducting research

Part of developing critical and creative thinking involves research. Conducting research is vital to ensure the information you obtain is reliable. Before we dive deep into critical and creative thinking models, let us look at how to conduct research.

The following are seven steps you can carry out when researching to ensure you are thorough and your sources are reliable.

1. Identify and develop your topic

   Before beginning any research, you must identify the topic you want to cover. In this instance, your topic would be models of critical and creative thinking. But in general terms, you may wish to choose a topic of interest.

2. Conduct preliminary research

   Carry out a high level of research to determine whether there is enough information to cover the topic.

3. Locate the materials

   With the internet at our fingertips, research can be carried out quite literally in the palm of your hand. Internet-based search engines can provide countless articles, blogs, and resources relevant to your topic. Choose a search engine such as Google, Yahoo, or Bing and type in the keywords. For example, 'Models of critical thinking and 'Models of creative thinking.' Research is not limited to the internet alone. You may also wish to research in other forms, such as:

   • textbooks
   • eBooks
   • library catalogues
   • university databases, etc. (North Hennepin Community College, n.d)

   Using Google to locate information

   Google is often the way to find information online. Two simple search tips can help you quickly locate sources. You can use these tips by themselves or combine them.

   Tip 1: Search-by-file

   Reports are most often shared in PDF format on websites. Limiting your search by file type can help you locate pieces. To do this, add the phrase "filetype: pdf" to your google search.

   Tip 2: Search by Domain

   Filtering your search results by domain will help you filter your search down to specific types of websites. For example, if looking for government reports, filter the search to Australian government websites by adding "site:gov.au" to your search.

   Other domains you could try include:

   • .org or .org.au for organisations .edu or .edu.au for educational institutions .com.au for Australian websites (UTS Library, n.d.)

   Evaluate the sources

   Check your information is accurate and reliable. You can use a simple method known as the CARS checklist.

   

   C-Credibility

   Credibility refers to the measure of authenticity of the source. To determine if the source is authentic, you should consider the following:

   • Is an author listed?
   • The qualifications of the author
   • Visual representation- how is the source presented; organised, structured, clear, concise
   • Grammar, spelling, and punctuation- has the source been appropriately edited?

   A-Accuracy

   Accuracy refers to how current, detailed, reliable, and comprehensive the source is. Inevitably, with time there is change, and much information has evolved to accommodate societal changes. Another indicator may be a lack of information- purposely leaving out information.

   The following should be considered in terms of accuracy:

   • Timeliness- How up-to-date the source is.
   • Comprehensive- Does the source only touch on key highlights, or does it have detailed and thorough information?
   • Lack of bias- Does the article address all sides, or does it purposely focus on one point of view?

   R-Reasonableness

   Reasonableness refers to fairness, objectivity, and consistency. This includes a lack of bias, considering all points of view, and controlling their preference; the information should not be contradictory.

   The following are indicators of a lack of reasonableness:

   • aggressive tone
   • overclaims/ exaggerations
   • generalisations
   • conflict of interest
   • contradictory information or data.

   S-Support

   Most of the information in an article or resource will come from somewhere. Some questions need to be raised in terms of the level of support of the article. For example, data needs to be backed up with the source of information. Correct citations and acknowledging the sources will solidify the validity of the head of information.

   The following are some indicators of a lack of support:

   • The author makes all claims
   • No bibliographies or citations
   • Lack of or unclear documentation
   • Data without supportive sources.

4. Make notes

   Once you have gathered your sources of information, you will need to note the most critical aspects of your findings and what you wish to include in your write-up. Keep a record of all the sources you used to obtain the information- even if you do not end up using it, you still need to document it.

5. Write it up

   When it comes to writing up the information you have obtained, you will need to consider the following:

   • the organisation
   • structure
   • presentation.

   This will become your draft. Look over it as often as you need to until you are happy with it.

6. Cite your sources

   You must always give credit where credit is due.

   At the end of your research, you must cite where you obtained your information from. Lack of citations or acknowledgment can result in plagiarism and questions about your research's credibility.

7. Proofread

   Finally, proofread your work. Before it is presented or formally used, this is to ensure you have edited any grammar, spelling, or punctuation errors and that you are happy with the layout and structure of your work. Ask yourself, does it make sense? Does it read well? Is it clear? Have you included all of the relevant citations? Once you have proofread it, it is ready to go.

Reliable sources of information in the workplace

Your research skills will equip you with the tools to recognise and identify various sources of information. Some of these sources are workplace-specific. For example, if you were responsible for conducting research based on statistics, you would need to access the Australian Bureau of Statistics. A government website would be considered a reliable source if you are looking for legislation.

Before we start looking into the models of creative thinking, we will look at critical and creative thinking concepts and approaches and how it applies to the workplace.

The following table outlines the attributes of critical and creative thinking.

An innovative leader like Steve Jobs used critical thinking skills when approaching any situation because he relies on evaluating the information presented to him to find the best approach or solution rather than relying on the most common opinion. Innovative leadership is the rarest kind, requiring critical thinking skills when assessing information. There are several models of critical thinking that have been developed, we will take a look at some of these in more detail.

Let’s start with Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom’s Taxonomy was developed in 1856 by an educational psychologist, Benjamin Bloom, as a means of hierarchically categorising the thinking skills or cognitive performance of students.

The taxonomy framework has six major categories comprising knowledge, skills, and abilities that build from simple to complex and then to more abstract levels of thinking. The six categories include:

1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation.

The following video provides a basic overview of Bloom’s Taxonomy. Watch the following video, ‘What is Bloom’s Taxonomy?’ to help paint the picture.

Bloom’s taxonomy in leadership

So why use Bloom’s taxonomy in leadership? Education (essentially, the development of thinking skills) is how we equip ourselves and others to make the most creative, innovative, and insightful decisions, solutions, and inventions. In other words, by recognising and developing our team’s (and our own) thinking skills or performance upward, according to this taxonomy, we can become critical thinkers.

Understanding the hierarchy of thinking skills, the characteristics of each skill level, and the process for working your way up the ‘rungs’ may help leaders and their teams in the workplace to expand their competencies, potentials, and capacities to do great things. Now, study the embedded guide to understand the characteristics of each level and the types of questions that would be asked when applying this skill level.

Before we break down each level of Bloom’s taxonomy, we need to know how to use it.

How to use Bloom’s Taxonomy

The level of cognitive performance or skill demonstrated by you and your team directly reflects the challenge posed by the task, question, or problem that you and your team are engaged in working through.

Many day-to-day tasks will call for knowledge and comprehension only, while challenging, long-term projects may demand a team-wide progression through every level of thinking and performance until all team members are experts and innovators on the matter at hand.

The goal of using Bloom’s taxonomy is to encourage higher-order critical thought in yourself and others by building up lower cognitive performance and skill levels.

It is all about what you facilitate for yourself and your team, in both the work goals and objectives you set out and in the level of training and development that you arrange and provide for yourself and your team. It is about recognising when you ask too little of your team in their daily work and challenging them to do more. Only by exercising the higher levels of skill can your team become accustomed to and proficient in them.

Eventually, with constant challenge and facilitation, performing analysis, synthesis and evaluation start to come naturally, and you and your team become critical thinkers. At this stage, you will automatically apply critical thinking to even mundane and rudimentary tasks and problems, and this is where creativity, insight, and innovation are born.

There are numerous leadership skills and methods that you could employ to facilitate higher cognitive performance and critical thought in your team.

Bloom’s Taxonomy includes the following six thinking skill (or cognitive performance) levels:

We will look at the levels to learn more about how each allows us to analyse information, make informed decisions to reach goals, and foster an environment of critical thinking in the workplace and our departments.

Evaluation

The RED model

Another model to observe is the RED model of Critical thinking.

The following is a visual representation of the model.

^{Adapted from Thinkwatson-the red model, http://www.thinkwatson.com/the-red-model/red-critical-thinking-model}

Let us break down each aspect of the RED model in more detail

R-Recognise assumptions

The R in the model stands of recognise assumptions. This aspect of the model focuses on comprehension. It is important to understand what is being stated and determine whether or not the information presented is true and backed up by supporting evidence. One fundamental aspect is identifying where assumptions have been made and pulling them apart to identify their validity and missing information or inconsistencies.

How to recognise assumptions

An assumption is typically something that has been deemed true or certain to happen, even without proof. Many people make assumptions that are not always elicited, it is being able to recognise these assumptions that make a successful critical thinker.

Let’s take a look at how to recognise assumptions.

1. Practice identifying the assumption from the material you have read.
2. Ask the following questions
3. What can be proven?
   • Where are the gaps in the logic?
   • What information is important and relevant?
   • What is missing?
4. Ask yourself why does it matter?
   • Separate fact and fiction
   • Notice and question assumptions.
5. How and when to use it
   • Listen to what is being said and consider what assumptions you already have
   • Look for gaps in logic and opinions disguised as fact.

E-Evaluate arguments

The E in the model stands for evaluate arguments. Evaluating arguments requires a logical and systematic analysis of the evidence and the arguments that have been provided. It is important to remain objective when teasing through arguments and information. One of the most difficult aspects of evaluating arguments is removing your judgement, particularly when emotion is involved. Subconsciously, you may find yourself looking for information that affirms your perspective rather than critically analysing all the information available. 

How to evaluate arguments

When you are evaluating arguments, you must ensure you analyse the arguments you have been presented with. Ask yourself:

• What is your perspective on the evidence? Can someone else have a different perspective if so, why would their perspective be different? What impacts can these arguments have on different points of view?
• The following are some examples to consider when arranging your thought process.
  • Information/ data
  • Legal
  • Political
  • Economic/ Financial
  • Cultural/ Social
  • Technology
  • Infrastructure
  • Time
  • Environment.
• How would someone argue with you against your position?

Why does it matter?

Sorting through conflicts can be challenging because, in many cases, emotions and pride get in the way, and we are often only hearing what we want to hear. The trick is, to remove emotion from the argument and determine why this argument is important. Remaining objective and filtering through the validity of the various positions will help draw to accurate conclusions. Remember, it is easier to draw a conclusion to avoid conflict.

How and when to use it

The keys to successful argument evaluation include:

• Accurately and objectively analysing the argument
• Questioning the quality of the evidence they have used to support their argument
• Understanding the impact of emotions, both yours and the opposing side and their influence on the argument
• Remove emotion and focus on the information and analyse it accurately and objectively.

D-Draw conclusions

The D in the model stands for draw conclusions. Drawing conclusions is the ability to pull together a range of information to find a logical conclusion based on the evidence that has been provided. When you are equipped with strong critical thinking skills, you should be able to adjust your conclusion should new evidence emerge, which may lead to a different conclusion.

Once you have gathered and considered the facts, consider the following:

• What is the best possible conclusion?
• Could there be any other conclusions?
• Is there new or additional information that has presented itself that changes the conclusion?
• Is the conclusion plausible based on your common sense and experience?
• What are the implications of this conclusion?

Why does it matter?

When you are equipped with this skill, you can bring a range of information together to draw a conclusion that fits cohesively and logically with the evidence available and would rarely generalise beyond what is in front of you. Additionally, you will be able to change your viewpoint or position if additional evidence indicates you would need to, therefore arming you with good judgement based on your ability to make quality decisions. 

(Think Watson, 2019)

When and how to use it

Once you have developed this skill, you can use it when faced with a tough decision or complex problem. (Think Watson, 2019)

Now that you understand critical thinking let us look at creative thinking.

What is creative thinking?

Creative thinking is generating new ideas, coming up with unique and original solutions, seeing existing situations in new ways, or making new links that reach positive outcomes. Also known as creative problem-solving, creative thinking is a valuable and marketable soft skill in various careers. Creative thinking could be:

• Thinking outside the box to create a new product or service that is new to the business.
• Coming up with a marketing campaign for your organisation that takes the brand to a whole new level.

The art of creative thinking lies in developing unique and innovative solutions to problems. Creative thinkers brainstorm not only many ideas but also a variety and range of them before experimenting with them.

They look at ideas from multiple perspectives and examine how their solutions fit into the scope of what they are working on. Creative thinkers are not afraid to take risks and try new ideas. In fact, this provides them with the ability to develop, test, and implement original solutions, making them a valuable asset to just about any workplace.

How does it work?

Creative thinking is sparked by curiosity, with many methods to ‘get the creative juices flowing.’ One way to do this is to think outside of the box. How could you solve a problem in a different manner?

The following video provides you with five tips on how to think outside of the box.

Types of creative thinking

The key to fostering creative thinking begins with a change in perspective. Learning various styles can help spark the inspiration of idea generation.

There are five types of creative thinking, as illustrated in the following infographic.

^{Adapted from UX planet, Science backed ways to boos creativity, https://uxplanet.org/science-backed-ways-to-boost-creativity-28b140b420bc.}

The most common ways to foster creative thinking include divergent and convergent thinking.

Divergent thinking mirrors brainstorming, where you come up with as many possible ideas as your imagination will allow for.

Convergent thinking is more logical, encouraging the research and gathering of facts and data to solve the problem.

In many cases, both types of thinking are used together to determine a creative solution.

(Wooll M, 2021)

The importance of creative thinking

Creative thinking allows us the space to come up with solutions to any problem. It is easy to find yourself in a systematic problem-solving pattern applying the same techniques, particularly in the workplace. This, however, can be detrimental to innovative thinking and will often keep you in the same routine restricting creativity.

Allowing creative thinking to flourish, you can identify patterns that may not be as obvious when you are first faced with them. Creative thinking makes you a better problem solver in your work life and personal life.

Creative thinking and expression enable you to challenge your assumptions and seek and discover new things about yourself and your perspective. It even plays a fundamental role in staying mentally stimulated and optimistic.

Fun fact!

Did you know creativity was the most sought-after soft skill in 2020?

Creative thinking in the workplace

Creative thinking in the workplace can be about solving a problem by looking at it from different perspectives and developing a new solution.

Many managers and leaders perceive creativity and innovation as unpredictable. Research has indicated that 53% of businesses have reported innovation occurs by chance. However, when you are equipped with the right tools, you can tap into and harness creativity at any time. (Wooll M, 2021)

There are many different methods or approaches to creative thinking. At work, creative thinking may look like this:

• Holding an interactive brainstorm to gather initial thoughts on a project Evaluating a current process and offering suggestions on how to improve it Researching other ways to market a product and leading experiments on new marketing channels Developing an innovative way to reach out to prospective clients Identifying a unique opportunity to promote the company brand and developing a strategy to do so. (Kaplan Z, 2022)

The following table highlights creative thinkers' various methods to illustrate their ideas.

Creative thinking also has various models which can be used to foster the skills. Many of the models used incorporate both critical and creative thinking concepts.

We will take a look at the Hurson’s Productive thinking model and the Osborn Parnes creative problem-solving process.

Hurson’s Productive Thinking Model

Canadian author Tim Hurson developed Hurson’s Productive Thinking Model. The model is a structured approach to solving problems or generating creative ideas. It encourages using a structured framework to help solve problems and issues. In a sense, it is virtually a hybrid of both creative and critical thinking. The model was carefully developed to help incorporate a creative mindset into problem-solving. This model is a framework rather than a technique. However, several methods are used at different stages to support creative problem-solving.

The following people can use Hurson’s model:

• Individuals
• Teams
• Business
• Those needing problems solved creatively.

The six steps of Hurson’s Productive thinking model

The model has six steps to follow. The six steps to Hurson’s Productive Thinking Model are:

1. What’s going on?
2. What is success?
3. What is the question?
4. Generate answers
5. Forge the solution
6. Align resources.

^{Adapted from Revolution Learning and Development, Hurson's Productive Thinking Model, n.d}

1. What’s going on?

   Before starting, you need to understand the problem. It could be one problem or several. Brainstorming can be helpful here to help identify the problems. Consider asking the following questions:

   • What are the significant issues?
   • What are the impacts the issues are having?
   • What are the details?
   • Who is involved, and what is causing the problem?
   • What does ‘good’ look like?

2. What is success?

   This is where you need to clearly define what good or better will look like- use your imagination. What would success look like if the problem was solved? One way to look at this is using the DRIVE model:

   D- Do.

   What do you want the solution to the problem to look like?

   R- Restrictions

   What should the solution not do?

   I – Investment

   What is available to help you, and how much can you invest in (time and money)

   V- Values

   What values should the solution uphold or stand by?

   E- Essential outcomes

   How will you measure the success of the solution?

3. What is the question?

   At this stage, you begin to look at a whole range of questions that if answered, can solve the problem. frames the challenge by turning it into a question. To do this, look at the information you have gathered, then think about the questions that will need to be answered to achieve the target. Ask open questions such as how.

   For example:

   How will you meet this deadline? How will you approach the client? How will you manage people and timelines for the best possible outcome to avoid burnout?

4. Generate answers

   The next logical step is to find answers to your questions. For example, you can use brainstorming here to generate several solutions to the questions posed.

5. Forge the solution

   Once you have brainstormed the possible answers, you can start to filter through and consider the best solutions you have come up with. The use of a decision grid will help make your final decision. The decision grids may look different. However, their purpose is essentially the same- you are weighing out the pros and cons of the solutions or answers. For example, how much would this cost, how many people are required, how long it will take, and so on. Once you have gathered the information, you will pick the best answer that may be time and cost-effective and develop it.

   Unpack the final solution in detail and think about how it could be achieved. Begin to list the steps required to get to success.

6. Align Resources

   Start to build a plan to achieve the outcome. You need to consider what resources you require to achieve the outcome. Use a tool such as an action plan or a project plan to put your plan together.

The Osborn Parnes creative problem-solving process

Creative problem solving (CPS) solves problems or identifies opportunities when a traditional way of thinking has not worked. Creative problem-solving encourages fresh perspectives and innovative solutions to achieve goals and combat obstacles.

The Osborn-Parnes model was founded in the 1940s. While it is quite the older model, it is still a standard model for problem-solving.

Fun fact!

Did you know Alex Osborn (co-founder of the model) also developed the term ‘brainstorming?'

The Process

The Osborne Parnes creative- problem-solving process involves the following six steps.

Step 1: Mess-Finding/Object Finding

The first step requires you to determine the goal of the problem-solving process will be. Be clear on why you are carrying out this process because this ensures you focus your efforts in the right area. Know what your goals and objectives are to focus your efforts where they have the most value.

Step 2: Fact-Finding

The second step requires gathering enough data to fully understand the problem. You will need to obtain as much information as possible to get the full picture of the situation. You can accomplish this by:

• collecting data
• gathering information
• making observations
• employing other methods of learning more about the situation.

During this step, you may also wish to identify success criteria for the situation.

Step 3: Problem-Finding

Step 3 requires you to dig deeper into and find the root or real problem you want to focus on. Reframe the problem to generate creative and valuable solutions. Ensure you look at the problem and the information you have gathered to clarify the problem you will be solving. Make sure you are focusing on the right problem before moving forward to develop a solution.

The following video provides you with information on why mind-maps are useful and how to use them to maximise their effectiveness.

Step 4: Idea-Finding

This step requires you to generate multiple options for addressing the problem.

You must come up with many potential ideas to address the problem. Do not judge the suggestions; instead, welcome all ideas. Unexpected or odd ideas may help others generate great ideas. Use brainstorming techniques, affinity mapping and grouping, and other tools to organise the input. Use 'yes, and…' statements rather than 'No, but…' statements to keep ideas flowing and avoid discouraging contributions.

Step 5: Solution Finding

This step requires you to choose the best options from your generated ideas. Set selection criteria for evaluating the ideas to select the best option. Weight your criteria to place more emphasis on the most important considerations. Create a prioritisation matrix with your criteria to help you choose what to focus on.

Step 6: Action-Finding

The sixth and final step involves developing a plan of action to implement your selected solution. You can achieve this by carrying out the following steps.

• Create a work breakdown structure of activities – this may be complex or simple.
• Identify who is responsible for each of the activities, dependencies, and due dates.
• Do an impact analysis, create a communication plan, and get buy-in or participation from more groups.

Critical and creative thinking together

Critical and creative thinking are both skills that should be encouraged. They can and will work cohesively when applied to the right situations. Many of the models we have explored, particularly the creative ones, have some overlaps with critical thinking. This is particularly evident when problem-solving.

Critical and creative thinking is key to approaching and solving issues and problems in the workplace. Remember, the most successful leaders can think both creatively and critically.

Knowledge Check

Answer the following two (2) questions. Click the arrows to navigate between the tasks.