Section 1: An Introduction to Effective Communication

Communication is the process of exchanging information with another person. It is a process that we all engage in on a daily basis. However, as Milne (2010) explains in the following extract, this process is very different within the counselling context.

The use of counselling skills differs from other relationship skills in that there’s emphasis on attention to one person only (the client), who is communicating their life details, their thoughts and feelings both past and present, to the other (the counsellor). The counsellor puts aside their own preoccupations and self-concerns and gives their full attention to the client.

^{(Milne, 2010, p. 66)}

Being able to effectively communicate is the core feature of a counsellor’s role, and it starts from the client’s very first session. As the process of counselling hinges on successful communication between the counsellor and client, it is important that you, as a counsellor, understand what makes up the communication process and learn the most effective methods for communicating with your client.

Understanding the primary factors that comprise, influence and impact the communication process is the first step in developing a successful therapeutic relationship with your client. Having this understanding will provide you with a framework that can be applied during counselling and will assist you in developing a relationship that is beneficial to your client, helps them to focus on their issues and facilitatesthe sour change.

Communication factors

According to Beebe, Beebe and Redmond (2014), the following factors make up and influence the communication process:

Participants

All the people involved in a given communication process – that is, the people communicating with one another. Participants are often described as either the source (or encoder) or receiver (or decoder). The source (encoder) forms the messages and communicates them to the receiver or receivers through verbal symbols (words) and non-verbal behaviour. Receivers (decoders) interpret the messages they receive.

Messages, meanings, and symbols

Messages are the “written, spoken, and unspoken elements of communication to which people assign meaning” (Beebe, Beebe & Redmond, 2014, p. 7). The meaning is the essence of the message that you send – your ideas and feelings. Symbols are the intentional and unintentional verbal and nonverbal words, sounds, and actions that are used to send messages and meanings.

As a counsellor, part of developing an effective counselling relationship is your ability to accurately decode the message that the client is sending. As messages contain both intentional and unintentional aspects, you need to be aware of the underlying components of the client’s communication: the unspoken elements of their message. Observing the client’s non-verbal as well as verbal communication enhances your ability to accurately decode client communication.

Channels

Channels are the means and pathways by which messages are sent. They can be oral messages (the use of sound); messages we see (written symbols or nonverbal messages); a scent (someone’s perfume may bring back memories); or distance between participants (some people stand very close in our ‘personal space’). Channels also include mediated channels, such as text messaging and phone calls. Our channels of communication are influential in our interpretation of a message.

Noise

Noise is anything that distracts participants from sharing the meaning of the message. Noise can be external (such as sights, sounds, and other literal distractions within the environment) or internal (such as competing thoughts, feelings, and other psychological occurrences such as stress or trauma).

Feedback

Feedback involves verbal and nonverbal responses to a person and/or their messages. These responses can be intentional or unintentional and will either reflect back the receiver’s interpretation of the sent message or be a request for more information.

Client rapport may be facilitated by skilful feedback using attending behaviour and other counselling skills and techniques. For example, by nodding and using verbal encouragers, you are feeding back to the client both verbally and non-verbally that you are interested in what they have to say. By using paraphrasing or summarising techniques, you will be reflecting back on your interpretation of the sent message. By using a tentative tone and ‘check in’, you will be ensuring that you have decoded the message correctly and you and the client are on the same page.

Context

The context of the communication comprises the physical and psychological setting in which it takes place. This takes into account what precedes the messaging and what follows the messaging. Context includes “not only the physical environment, but also the people present and their relationships with the communicators, the communication goal, and the culture of which the communicators are a part” (Beebe Beebe & Redmond, 2014, p. 8).

Rules

Rules of communication guide us in understanding what kind of messages and behaviours are acceptable in a given context or with particular people or groups.

It is important to note that rules are not always clear and may change across different situations. Rules may also be implicit or explicit, and most of us will learn rules through our experiences, observations, and interactions (Beebe, Beebe & Redmond, 2014). Rules may also change over time and are continually renegotiated within relationships (Beebe, Beebe & Redmond, 2014).

Some clients may find the counselling context particularly challenging as they have learned from their family of origin that it is not acceptable to express feelings. As a counsellor, you may encourage the client to think about whether these learned communication rules are helpful or whether the client is willing to try a new rule of more open communication.

Communication Factors in the Counselling Setting

The following diagram shows a simplified version of the communication process as it may present in a counselling context. The communication process takes place in a context which includes the culture that the communicators are part of and encompasses both the client and counsellor. The source (client) encodes their story (message), including the feelings, ideas, and thoughts attached to it, and sends this to the receiver (counsellor). The counsellor must then decode (understand) this message, including both verbal and non-verbal components and attempt to separate his own ideas and feelings about the story from the client’s.

The counsellor then becomes the source and sends their own messages, including feedback, which need to be decoded by the client. The counsellor needs to use their communication skills to encode their messages in such a way that they are likely to be easily understood by the client. It is important to note that messages from the client contain both intentional and unintentional components. The intentional components often relate to the verbal content of the client’s message, while the counsellor may be able to pick up other (possibly unintentional) clues through the client’s non-verbal behaviour or choice of words. The same is true for the counsellor; this is why counsellors need to monitor their own body language as well as the client’s (we will discuss this in more detail as you progress through the module).

The Power of Nonverbal Communication

Joe Navarro presents a TedTalk about the power of nonverbal communication, debunking myths and falsehoods about nonverbals and giving people insight in how to better utilise nonverbals to enhance their communication skills.

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As a counsellor, it is your responsibility to facilitate effective communication with your client. The following strategies can be used during counsellor decoding (i.e., interpretation of the client’s message) and encoding (i.e., structuring a feedback message) stages of the communication process to ensure effective client-counsellor communication.

Decoding (Interpretation) Process

Your main aim in the decoding (interpretation) process is to understand what the client is conveying to you. Fully understanding the client’s message involves effectively using strategies such as attending behaviours while listening to interpret what you are hearing and looking for underlying meaning by observing non-verbal behavioural cues (e.g., facial expressions, posture, silence).

In order to really understand the client’s message, it is also important to put aside any assumptions you may have and to be aware of how your own values, beliefs and emotions may impact your understanding in the decoding process (we will explore this in more detail later in this module).

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Encoding (Structuring) Process

As communication is a two-way process, the counsellor should also ensure that their feedback to the client is structured in a way to make it as easy to understand as possible. It is, therefore, important to understand how a person absorbs and processes information (often referred to as a person’s learning style), as this will influence how you should structure your feedback messages. One of the popular theories of understanding learning styles is the VARK Learning Styles proposed by Fleming and Mills. They suggest that people use and prefer different styles and strategies for processing information. Bastable, Gramet, Jacobs and Sopczyk (2011) outline Fleming and Mills’ four proposed styles in the following extract.

According to Fleming and Mills, an individual learns more effectively and comfortably in one of the following ways:

• Visual learners – Like graphical representations such as flowcharts with step-by-step directions.
• Aural (i.e. auditory) learners – Enjoy listening to lectures, often need directions read aloud, and prefer to discuss topics and form study groups.
• Read/write learners – Like the written word by reading or writing with references to additional sources of information.
• Kinesthetic learners – Enjoy doing hands-on activities, such as role-playing and return demonstration.”

^{Bastable, Gramet, Jacobs & Sopczyk, 2011, p. 142}

Research suggests that while some individuals may have a dominant style of learning, others may use a mix of styles or a different style in different circumstances and situations. So, how does this impact the counselling process?

While referred to as “learning styles”, the VARK is “technically about a person’s preference for taking in and putting out information” (Bastable, Gramet, Jacobs & Sopczyk, 2011, p. 142). In other words, the same processes that affect learning can also affect the way in which information passes between people. For example, a counsellor who is an auditory learner may experience some difficulties when working with a client who is a visual learner. It may be difficult for this client to understand counselling theories when explained verbally by the counsellor. However, if the counsellor were to draw a diagram of the counselling theory, the client may understand instantly. Thus, a mismatch in learning styles between the counsellor and client may create a communication barrier. It is the counsellor’s job to match his or her communication style to the client’s, thus removing potential communication barriers and aiding the communication process.

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In addition to mismatches in communication and learning styles, there are several other barriers that can interrupt the communication process. Communication barriers may be in the form of ‘noise’, which prevents the client from being cognitively and emotionally present. Other communication barriers may occur during the transmission of the message due to factors such as language, client disabilities, or cultural differences. When there are communication barriers, the client may not disclose his or her feelings and concerns fully enough for the counsellor to completely understand what the client is experiencing, and the counsellor may not respond in ways that the client finds helpful.

The following factors can all create communication barriers:

Environmental

The room or building layout may prove to be a barrier. For example, if the client can hear people in the next booth, which is only separated by a screen, they may not communicate as openly as if they were in an office with walls. You should always adhere to your organisation’s privacy policies and Work Health and Safety guidelines to reduce the likelihood of environmental factors impacting the client-counsellor communication process. Workplace guidelines may include the following points:

• The counsellor should ensure they use a room in which to conduct counselling that is private and soundproof.
• Ensure disability access is provided – the client is not to be hindered by lack of access as they may potentially feel discriminated, and this is likely to create defensive communication.
• Chairs are to be secure – if the client feels unsafe, they will not be cognitively present.
• Lighting – if too stark, the client may feel interrogated and unwilling to talk. The counsellor should not have a light behind them shining onto the client –  as this may create a communication barrier due to the client potentially feeling interrogated.
• Temperature – if too cold – the client may not be focussed on the conversation.

Physical

This may include obstacles such as counsellor note-taking. Although taking accurate notes during client sessions is important, it can potentially disrupt the communication process by distracting both the counsellor and the client. The counsellor may miss certain non-verbal cues while looking down at the notes, and the client may be more focused on what the counsellor is writing than his or her communication. As such, it is important to be mindful of such barriers and ensure that your note-taking is not distracting (we will explore note-taking and how to take notes with minimum distraction later on in this module).

Individual perceptions

A client may attribute completely different meanings to a situation resulting in a vastly different perception of the situation compared to the counsellor’s perception of the same situation. It is important not to assume that the client thinks in the same way as the counsellor. Ensure you ask open questions to gather the client's perspective.

Cultural

Culture refers to the attitudes and beliefs that come from our personal environment and experience. Two people could receive the same message but interpret it in two entirely different ways simply because their frames of reference, language and cultural perspective differ. For example, a person from one culture may find eye contact aids rapport, whereas a person from another culture may find direct eye contact to be impolite.

Language

A communication barrier is likely to occur if a client primarily speaks a language that is different to the counsellor’s language.

Some clients look upon younger counsellors as inexperienced and may not feel comfortable talking to them, whereas a child or adolescent may feel more comfortable with a younger counsellor due to feeling more able to identify with them. This is not always the case, but it is important to take age into consideration when matching clients to counsellors. It is also important to develop empathy and ensure you work from the client's frame of reference.

Disability

A client may have an impairment or disability that could prevent them from being clearly understood or expressing themselves. It is important to adapt your communication to accommodate any disability your client may have. For example, you could take particular care to sit closer to a client who is hard of hearing and speak slowly and clearly.

Challenges with communication are common for many people with intellectual disabilities, and counsellors need to ensure that their practice is flexible enough to respond effectively to the needs of this particular client group. Where speech or comprehension represent communication barriers, counsellors should adjust the language they are using and the speed of delivery to match individual clients and ‘check in’ frequently to ensure understanding.

Intense emotions, such as those triggered by stress and trauma

These can create a barrier to the communication process by disrupting cognitive functions such as concentration, attention, and memory. Clients who present in this state may find it difficult to concentrate, their attention may wander, and they may jump around from subject to subject. They may find it difficult to both remember key facts and also to process new information.

Stress may also affect client verbal communication resulting in difficulty with self-expression. Clients may speak very quickly or very slowly, and their communication messages may be disjointed and non-linear. Their handwriting may be messy and difficult to read. Non-verbal indications of stress may include flashing or rolling eyes, rapid breathing or holding of breath, crossed arms and/or legs, sweating or flushing, staring or avoiding eye contact and excessive fidgeting. The following table outlines just a few of the impacts that stress can have on communication processes.

As you can see, various environmental and individual differences can represent significant communication barriers for both client and counsellor. The following case study shows how various barriers, when not appropriately addressed, may impact the effectiveness of the counselling process.

Case Study

Mark, a 50-year-old electrician, attends his first counselling session with Alex at her clinic which is located on a busy intersection. Mark has struggled with a speech impediment since childhood. However, this is not why he is attending counselling. When Mark meets Alex he is surprised to see first of all that she is female. He had assumed with a name like Alex that she was a man. He is also dismayed to see how much younger she is than him. In fact, he has a daughter around the same age.

The session does not go well. Mark finds the noise from the traffic outside of the clinic room very distracting, and this worsens his stutter. Furthermore, Alex reminds him very much of his daughter. Mark feels embarrassed and unwilling to discuss his issue, which involves difficulties he is having in his relationship with his wife. Alex finds it frustrating trying to work out what Mark is saying and assumes that he must be there to find ways to manage his stutter. Furthermore, she finds his frequent swearing difficult to deal with. She is thinking of speech strategies rather than listening to what Mark is saying and finds herself trying to help him along by finishing off his sentences.

Barriers to communication in counselling

The presenters in this video identify and discuss some barriers to communication in counselling.

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How to Overcome Communication Barriers

Recognising communication barriers is the first step to overcoming them. As a counsellor, it is your job, not the client’s, to be mindful of communication barriers and work to resolve them.

Environmental

Environmental barriers can be overcome by making changes to the counselling environment to accommodate the client’s needs and eradicate or minimise the barrier. For example, in the case study, in order to address the issue of traffic noise, Alex could conduct her sessions with Mark in another counselling room which is quieter or make use of a water fountain or background music to mask the traffic noise. As another example, if the client is distracted by something outside the window, you could ask if they would mind if you closed the blinds.

Disability

If a client’s disability is likely to result in problematic communication, you could address this directly by providing supportive services. For example, a client who has a significant hearing impairment may benefit from the services of an Auslan interpreter who is fluent in sign language. Barriers may also be addressed indirectly. For example, in the previous case study, Alex could minimise the effect of her client’s speech difficulties by utilising attending behaviour and microskills to encourage her client to tell his story rather than finishing off his sentences for him.

Language

If you are unable to speak the client’s language, you will need to consult your organisational guidelines about actions to take in order to reduce the language barrier. This may involve obtaining the services of a translator or referring the client to a service with available translators or counsellors that speak the client’s language.

Age

In the case of age, barriers may sometimes be overcome through discussion with the client. However, in cases when they cannot be, counsellors may need to refer their clients to another more appropriate counsellor or service. It is also important for the counsellor to understand that sometimes, despite their best efforts, a connection cannot be made between them and the client. In these cases, the counsellor may need to refer the client to another counsellor.

Cultural

In the case of cultural barriers, it is the responsibility of counsellors to develop an understanding of the client’s cultural traditions and do their best to respect them. For example, avoiding eye contact or sitting beside the client instead of across from them. It is also crucial for counsellors to consider and evaluate their own personal biases, values, and frame of reference. It is important to understand the impact of your values and make sure that you do not attempt to impose them upon your client. In the scenario, Alex’s own values around swearing may have limited her ability to understand and communicate effectively with her client.

Own perception

Counsellors should also do their best to understand the client’s point of view and check in regularly rather than relying on their own perception or understanding of the situation. In the scenario, Alex made an assumption about her client's needs (i.e., that he needed help with his speech impediment) which impacted negatively on the counselling process.

Being in a stressed or traumatised state

As discussed previously, being in a stressed or traumatised state has a significant impact on a client’s ability to both express themselves and take in the counsellor’s feedback. Counsellors should remain alert to indications of this and adjust their communication response appropriately. This may involve slowing down the counselling process, reducing the complexity and speed of counsellor feedback and using frequent ‘check-ins’. Using client development strategies such as challenging and reframing (which you will learn more about in the next section of this module) should be avoided while a client is in a stressed or traumatised state. Instead, supportive counselling strategies such as attending behaviour and empathetic responses should be used (e.g., “That sounds like a really awful experience.”). Additionally, counsellors should ensure that their non-verbal communication is non-threatening by sitting further away from the client than usual and avoiding sudden movements. As stress and trauma also have a significant impact on the counsellor’s ability to listen effectively and therefore decode the client’s messages successfully, counsellors should aim to manage their own stress levels through relaxation strategies and supervision.

Breaking Down Communication Barriers

Angela Graves provides an informative presentation about how we can break down communication barriers. She has a strong philosophy about strong and clear communication - strong communication builds strong relationships. Strong relationships build strong communities, and strong communities build a strong society.

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Check your understanding of the content so far!

This section of the module provided you with an introduction to the elements of effective communication. You learned about the components of communication and how learning styles can affect the way in which we communicate. You also learned about some of the common barriers to effective communication and some of the potential ways that they can be resolved.

• Bastable, S. B., Gramet, P., Jacobs, K., & Sopczyk, D. L. (2011). Health professional as educator: Principles of teaching and learning. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett.
• Beebe, S. A., Beebe, S. J., & Redmond, M. V. (2014). Interpersonal communication: Relating to others (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
• Milne, A. (2010). Understand counselling. London, UK: Hodder Education.