Section 1: Introduction to Developmental Theory

The communication and counselling skills you have learned in previous modules are crucial in facilitating the general counselling process; however, using these skills alone is usually not enough to assist clients through the change process. Counsellors need to apply various theories to understand a client’s situation, including their individual characteristics, circumstances, and behaviours, in order to determine what approach or intervention might work for them. In this module, we will focus on different theories of personality and human development and how they can be helpful to the counselling process. You may remember several of these counselling theories from Counselling and the counselling process module.

To understand these theories of human development, we must first consider the definition of development. Development describes 'systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death, or from “womb to tomb”' (Sigelman, De George, Cunial, & Rider, 2019, p. 3). From this definition, it is apparent that development is a continuous process throughout a person’s life, although development may be more obvious and happen more rapidly in the early years.

Importantly, development includes both the continuities (i.e., what remains consistent across time) as well as the systematic changes (i.e., orderly or expected patterns of change) that one experiences throughout the lifespan. These continuities and changes generally fall into three broad domains, which are outlined in the following table.

^{Adapted from Sigelma et al., 2019, p.3}

Developmental changes in each of these domains are interrelated (Hoffnung et al., 2016). For instance, the development of social relationships (psychosocial domain) is related to and influenced by the person’s physical (e.g., motor skills) and cognitive (e.g., language) development. These domains develop throughout the individual’s lifespan and are influenced by the various contexts (e.g., family, culture) that the individual is embedded within (Hoffnung et al.).

As such, theories of human development, more commonly called developmental theories, are sets of ideas that aim to describe, explain, and predict developmental changes and continuities across the lifespan, as well as factors that may influence this process both in positive and negative ways (Sigelman et al., 2019). Some developmental theories only focus on specific areas within these developmental domains, while others explore these domains within specific contexts. It is, therefore, important to learn from a variety of developmental theories in any attempt at an understanding of human development, which is essential to working competently with clients in counselling.

Life span development, the study of human behavioral change from conception to death, is not a remote or esoteric body of knowledge. Rather, it has much to offer the helping professional both personally and professionally. The study of development allows helpers to understand more completely clients’ concerns that are rooted in shared human experience. It provides a knowledge base built upon research and serves as a useful tool for decision making. It encourages a way of thinking about client problems from a develop-mental perspective. Studying development also facilitates counselors’ personal growth by providing a foundation for reflecting on their own lives.

^{Broderick & Blewitt, 2015, p. 1}

As noted, understanding human development is important to counsellors for various reasons. Particularly, developmental theories provide a framework for counsellors to identify what behaviours are ‘normative’ or to be expected for a given age, providing a baseline that indicates where a person is likely to be at various points in their development (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2013). For example, a two-year-old throwing a tantrum because they do not get what they want is developmentally normal. However, an adult displaying the same behaviour is problematic and will lead to difficulties in interpersonal relationships, the workplace, and so on.

In addition, many of the issues clients bring to counselling result from changes across their lifespan. For example, the teenage years are often difficult for young people to navigate. Similarly, adults in the middle years of life may encounter difficulties related to their roles and place in the world. By considering theories of development, counsellors can better understand the range of issues that clients (and counsellors themselves) may be facing concerning their development and so are better able to appropriately select and apply interventions (Hoffnung et al., 2016).

One particular aspect that developmental theories strive to explain is the development of personality, commonly defined as “people’s typical ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving” (Lilienfeld et al., 2019, p. 570). Generally, we describe someone’s personality using terms of traits, such as ‘extroversion’ or ‘agreeableness’, that reflect the consistencies in the person’s tendencies and behaviours across time and situations. In this module, we will explore the development of personality and behaviours through the lens of various developmental theories, including considerations of the role of nature and nurture and specific theories such as Freud’s, Erikson’s, Bowlby’s, Piaget’s, and Maslow’s.

Overview of theories and development

The following video is a clear summary of four development theories. Please note that when it comes to Freud, much of his psychosexual theory of development has been discredited and is no longer considered valid.

Watch

Check your understanding of the content so far!

The scientific study of human development began around the late 19th century, when there was growing recognition of childhood as a distinct period of life in industrialised Western societies (Hoffnung et al., 2016). As Sigelman and colleagues (2019) noted, some scholars at the time, including Charles Darwin (who is famous for his theory of evolution), published detailed observations of their own children’s development in the form of ‘baby biographies’. As you can imagine, these baby biographies were not good materials for scientific research by today’s standards, given their low generalisability, tiny sample sizes, and potential biases in the ‘researchers’. Nevertheless, this stimulated further interest in conducting proper research on children. Influenced by Darwin, the most commonly cited founder of developmental psychology, G. Stanley Hall, pioneered studying children’s development using objective evidence from larger samples (Sigelman et al., 2019).

Whilst pioneers like Hall studied the entire human lifespan, many researchers in the 20th century focussed on specific periods of human life, such as infancy, childhood, adolescence, and old age (Sigelman et al., 2019). Not until the 1960s and 1970s did the lifespan perspective on human development emerge and evolve into the contemporary approach to studying human development we have today. You will find a list of key assumptions of the lifespan perspective in Reading B. In a nutshell, the modern lifespan perspective views development as:

While we explore some of the most influential developmental theories in this module, remember that they emerged earlier in time (these are often known as ‘classic’ theories) and so do not fit well into the contemporary lifespan perspective described. These theories, however, contributed to the development of the comprehensive lifespan perspective, as they offered insights into varying aspects of developments and the factors that influence such processes. As outlined in the following extract, theories of human development shifted from emphasising biology to environmental influences and the active role of individuals, then to cognitive developments and socio-cultural influences, finally arriving at a more comprehensive perspective on human development.

"Our understanding of human development has changed, and will continue to change, as one prevailing view gives way to another. From the beginning of the systematic study of human theory, a stage theory perspective prevailed, emphasising biological developmental forces.

In the 1950s and 1960s, learning theories came to the fore, and attention shifted from biology toward environment and toward the view that children are blank tablets to be written on. At around the same time, humanistic theories challenged the views of the psychoanalysts and behaviourists by seeking to understanding the positive dimensions of human experience and the active role individuals take in shaping their own developmental course.

Then, with the rising influence of cognitive psychology and Piaget’s theory of cognitive development in the late 1960s and 1970s, a stage theory model emphasising the interaction of nature and nurture gained prominence. Alternative cognitive perspectives also emerged: Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory stressed the role of social interaction and cultural tools; information-processing perspectives drew an analogy between the human mind and computers; and adult cognitive perspectives focused attention on the development of cognitive throughout the entire life span.

Finally, from the 1980s and 1990s through to the present, we have gained a fuller appreciation of both biological-genetic and cultural historical influences on development."

^{Sigelman et al., 2019, p. 85}

Several theoretical approaches are mentioned in the extract, including psychoanalytical, learning theories, humanistic, cognitive, and sociocultural theories (you may remember learning about some of these approaches previously). Although the earlier theories of development are generally taken over by contemporary approaches as our understanding of development becomes more comprehensive, it is still important that we learn about these classic theories as they have influenced and informed the development of the later theories, including those that were developed in opposition to certain classic theories.

Moreover, the contemporary approaches to studying development usually involve integrating some classic developmental theories with knowledge of human development derived from various disciplines (e.g., modern genetics, neuroscience, social psychology, anthropology, etc.) to generate a more comprehensive view on lifespan development (Broderick & Blewitt, 2015). Therefore, as a beginning counsellor, you need to understand each theory's foundations and strengths and weaknesses. This will be important in understanding the different factors in client development and the influences upon their presenting issues.

Typically, developmental theories can be categorised in terms of their approach to explaining the following aspects of human development (which are explained in more detail in Reading C).

When you learn about various developmental theories in this module, consider how each theory might answer the questions in each of the following quadrants (Sigelman et al., 2019, p. 50), and consider which theory (or theories) might be useful in exploring a particular clients’ circumstances. Your chosen approach will also likely guide your practice regarding how client problems are defined and addressed.

We will now turn our attention to the first quadrant – a highly debated topic within developmental science and psychology: how much is one’s development dependent upon what they are born with (nature) and what they learn from their environment (nurture)?

Theories of human development differ substantially on whether development is attributed to biological and genetic factors (nature) or social and environmental factors (nurture). A theory’s perspective on the roles of nature and nurture is often reflected in its explanation of individual differences. The following extract summarises the two ‘sides’ of the nature/nurture debate.

"Strong believers in nature have stressed the importance of individual genetic makeup, universal maturational* processes guided by genes, and biologically-based predispositions built into genes over the course of evolution. Such theorists have been likely to claim that children typically achieve the same developmental milestones at similar times because of maturational forces, that major changes associated with ageing are largely biologically based, and that differences among children or adults are largely because of differences in genetic makeup and physiology.

By contrast, strong believers in nurture emphasise environment or influences from outside the person. Nurture includes influences of the physical environment (crowding, pollution and the like) as well as the social environment (for example, learning experiences, child-rearing methods, peers, societal trends such as social media, and the cultural context in which the person develops). A strong believer in the influence of nurture is likely to argue that human development can take many paths depending on the individual’s experiences over a lifetime.

* “the biological unfolding of the individual according to a plan contained in the genes” (p.11)"

^{Sigelman et al., 2019, p.51}

Epigenetics: Nature vs nurture

A short movie which describes why the identical twins Lucky Lyle and Troubled Tim end up with totally different personalities. Is it environment or genetics? Or perhaps both?

Watch

Interplay Between Nature and Nurture

Today, there is a general consensus that development is influenced by a combination of both genetic inheritance and environmental factors, although theorists vary in the emphasis they give to each. It is most likely that some aspects of our personalities, such as drives, traits, and needs, are more attributable to genetic inheritance, while other aspects of our personalities, such as learned habits, attitudes, and patterns of interaction, are more influenced by environmental factors.

To put this into context, let’s consider the roles of genetic inheritance and environment in the development of human traits such as intellectual functioning, temperament and personality, and psychological disorders. How do genetic inheritance and environmental factors influence the development of these aspects?

Intellectual functioning

Research has found genetic influence on intelligence; for example, adopted children’s IQs are more strongly correlated with the IQs of their biological parents than of their adopted parents (Sigelman et al., 2019). However, genetic inheritance is only part of the story. Environmental factors, such as living in poverty, are detrimental to children’s cognitive development, leading to slower development and lower intelligence overall, influenced by factors including inadequate nutrition, poor health care, less parental involvement, unsafe neighbourhoods, and other disadvantages associated with poverty. This means that whilst a person’s genes may determine the bracket of intelligence they are likely to be in, their environment influences where in this bracket they end up.

Temperament and personality

Studies suggested that infants have distinctive temperaments, which are “genetically-based tendencies to respond in predictable ways to events, which serve as the building blocks of personality” as early as the first weeks of life (Sigelman et al., 2019). However, a child’s temperament is likely to adapt continuously to fit with their environment (e.g., parenting behaviours, social expectations) as personality traits become more stable later in life. As Sigelman and colleagues (2019) conclude, evidence to date suggested that aspects of personality remain relatively stable as we age, yet also undergo a good deal of change across the lifespan.

Trait Theory - History of Personality Psychology

The following video explains what a personality trait is.

Watch

Psychological disorders

Development of psychological disorders, such as alcohol and other drug issues, autism spectrum disorders, depressive disorder, eating disorders, and aggressive or criminal behaviour are attributed to a combination of both genetic inheritance and environmental influences:

Using schizophrenia as an example, children with at least one biological parent with schizophrenia are at higher risk of developing schizophrenia than are children who do not have a parent with the disorder, even if they are adopted at an early age (Sigelman & Rider). Nevertheless, children who are at increased risk due to their genetic inheritance do not necessarily go on to develop schizophrenia. In fact, only about one in 10 do.

This means that, although people may inherit a vulnerability to developing schizophrenia, other factors are involved in developing the disorder. For example, brain damage in the womb or growing up in a dysfunctional environment can increase the likelihood of developing schizophrenia in genetically at-risk children (Sigelman & Rider).

Another example of gene-environment influence is the development of problematic substance use behaviours, such as excessive alcohol consumption. Studies suggest that a person’s genes not only predispose them to drinking alcohol, but also to choosing peers who drink (Sigelman et al., 2019). Socialising with drinking peers then reinforces the behaviour of drinking and influences the pattern of alcohol use. A person who hangs around peers who drink heavily is likely to drink heavily compared to a person who spends time with peers who drink less.

As you can see, while one may be born with higher potentials (positive or negative), the environment they are raised in will enhance or limit that quality (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2013). Such consideration is important for counsellors since it implies that counsellors can support clients to create an optimal environment for client change.

Applications in Counselling

Given the interplay between genetic and environmental factors, counsellors must consider both nature and nurture in developing their understanding of their clients. Factors that counsellors should consider include:

Consider the following case study:

To work effectively with Gwen, a counsellor must analyse her circumstances, considering both nature and nurture factors.

From the nature perspective, Gwen suffers from health issues and has a history of anxiety and depression. She is middle-aged, exhausted from sickness, working long hours, and juggling multiple roles.

From the nurture perspective, Gwen’s living environment is reasonably comfortable, given her level of education and employment and her positive relationship with her husband. She seems to have good support through her church but also feels drained from supporting her adult children and her mother. Other environmental factors to consider include the impact of childhood sexual abuse and the cultural norms or expectations in her upbringing and environment.

Gwen’s current difficulties are most likely the result of a combination of both nature and nurture factors. Her age and history of illnesses, which might have originated from the interaction between genetics and stress due to life events, could make her more vulnerable to illness and exhaustion in daily chores. The social roles she takes on are largely influenced by the social and cultural contexts she was raised and is currently living in. For example, she might feel obligated to care for her mother and support her adult children.

Considering nature-nurture interplay, Gwen’s counsellor is more likely to comprehensively understand Gwen’s situation and provide personally and culturally appropriate support.

As well as helping counsellors understand clients’ circumstances, nature-nurture considerations are also useful in helping clients to better understand their own situations and make sense of the difficulties they are facing. Whilst Gwen can’t change her genetic inheritance, she has some control over her environment. Drawing on this perspective, it could be useful to help Gwen explore how both nature and nurture have contributed to her challenges, and support her in identifying possible strategies, changes to her environment, and additional resources that could relieve her stress. Gwen may also learn strategies to cope with anxieties or develop skills to manage responsibilities.

When suggesting explanations for client experiences based on a particular approach or theory, counsellors should always be tentative; as we have learned, no major theory can provide a full account of a person’s experiences, so any theory provides just one of many possible explanations, and may or may not be correct or appropriate for the client.

It is, therefore, important to use a questioning tone of voice or follow up with a ‘check out’ question whenever a potential explanation is given. This might be something like “Does that sound reasonable?” or “Could that be what’s going on?” for example. As usual, counsellors need to use appropriate communication and counselling skills (as you have learned in previous modules) and tailor information to each client.

Counsellors should also be careful not to give the impression that the client does not need to be accountable for their behaviour (e.g., blaming their genes or environment), but it is important to be gentle and supportive when addressing issues of responsibility.

The theories you will be learning in the following section vary significantly in how they view the relative contributions of nature and nurture to development and particular issues. The following chart shows where different theories can be placed on a continuum depending on the weight they place on nature and nurture factors.

Theories on the nature/nurture continuum
Nature Nurture	Biological approach Focus on genetic, hormonal and neurochemical explanations of behaviour.
	Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic approach Innate drives of sex and aggression (nature). Social upbringing during childhood (nurture).	Freud's psychoanalytic theory Erikson's psychosocial stages Bowlby's attachment theory
	Cognitive approach Innate mental structures such as schemas, perception and memory are constantly changed by the environment.	Piaget's stages of cognitive development
	Humanistic approach Society influences a person's self-concept.	Maslow's hierarchy of needs
	Biological approach All behaviour is learnt from the environment through conditioning.	Learning theories (to be covered in the next module)

In this section of the module, we explored what developmental theories are and how various developmental theories have emerged and developed over the last century or so. We also discussed the nature-nurture debate, acknowledging the general consensus that biological and environmental influences interact over the course of development and that, in fact, development in any area is impossible without both nature and nurture. We will now turn our attention to specific developmental theories in the next section.

• Broderick, P. C., & Blewitt, P. (2015). The life span: Human development for helping professionals (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
• Corey, G. (2017). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (10th ed). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
• Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R. J., Seifert, K. L., Hine, A., Ward, L., Pausé, C., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton Smith, R. (2016). Lifespan development (3rd ed). Milton, Australia: John Wiley & Sons Australia.
• Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., Namy, L. L., Jamieson, G., Marks, A., & Slaughter, V. (2019) Psychology: From inquiry to understanding (3rd ed). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson Australia.
• McLeod, S. (2018). Nature vs nurture in psychology. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/naturevsnurture.html
• Sigelman, C. K., & Rider, E. A. (2018). Life-span human development (9th ed.). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.
• Sigelman, C. K., De George, L., Cunial, K. M., & Rider, E. A. (2019). Life span human development – Australia and New Zealand Edition (3rd ed). South Melbourne, Australia: Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited.
• Zastrow, C. H., & Kirst-Ashman, K. K. (2013). Understanding human behavior and the social environment (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.