Components of Fitness

In this topic, we focus on the components of fitness. You will learn:

• the fundamental components of fitness for effective and specific exercise programming
• how each component of fitness is trained and what is required for adaption to occur
• the practical implications of each component of fitness.

Terminology and vocabulary reference guide

As an allied health professional, you need to be familiar with terms associated with basic exercise principles and use the terms correctly (and confidently) with clients, your colleagues, and other allied health professionals. You will be introduced to many terms and definitions. Add any unfamiliar terms to your own vocabulary reference guide.

Activities

There are several practical activities in the topic and an end of topic automated quiz. These are not part of your assessment but will provide practical experience that will help you in your work and help you prepare for your assessment.

If we could give every individual the right amount of nourishment and exercise, not too little and not too much, we would have found the safest way to health. Hippocrates

Let's start this topic with a question. Do you think a marathon runner is fitter than a shot-putter? This is an impossible question to answer, as each is good at different fitness components at opposite ends of the spectrum. One way you could answer this question is by taking a wider look at all the components that go together to define fitness.

Fitness is the ability to make enough energy to meet demands being placed on the body and as a personal trainer, you need to know the components of physical fitness and how your training programmes affect them. The following table lists the range of fitness components and provides a short definition.

When looking at the fitness components and comparing these to our marathon and shot-putt athletes we probably agree that the shot-putter is the fittest, beating the marathon runner seven to four:

• The shot-putter wins in terms of flexibility, speed, anaerobic power, muscular strength, agility, balance, and coordination 
• The marathon runner wins in terms of aerobic power, aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity, muscular endurance.

Cross fitness is an example of an activity that attempts to develop all-round fit individuals. Cross fitness trainers consider all the components and prescribe training sessions for each to develop an all-around fit athlete, as does a competent fitness trainer.

Grouping components as health-related or performance-related 

Fitness can be grouped into health-related and performance-related components. 

Grouping components as aerobic or anaerobic

Components can also be classified as per their oxygen requirements, as either aerobic (requires oxygen) or anaerobic ( energy production in the absence of oxygen).

As a trainer, part of your skillset is conducting a needs analysis to identify the components of fitness that best match a client’s goals, then develop amazing programs that optimally develop those factors over time. When working with the average 'I want to lose some weight' client, you are concentrating on the health-related components of fitness as these build a base of fitness and are positively related to general health outcomes and wellbeing.

If you work with athletes, you can assume they have laid a base of fitness and are therefore ready to take on more intense and dynamic forms of training. The goals are less related to living a healthy lifestyle and more focused on athletic performance (such as agility).

Let's focus on the following key components you need to know as a personal trainer.

• strength
• anaerobic capacity and power
• aerobic capacity
• muscular endurance
• speed
• reaction time
• agility, balance
• flexibility.

Strength is the force that a muscle group can exert against resistance. Factors such as neural activation, muscle fibre type/size and limb length affect the capability of the muscle to produce force. Let's define these terms.

Look at the following graph to see how neural activation, muscle fibre type and size and limb length affect the strength and then read the explanation.

Explanation

This graph demonstrates how initial rapid gains in strength are brought about mainly by improved neural activation with muscle growth occurring much latter and further improving strength gains. Now, watch the following video of Eddie Hall deadlifting 500 kilograms!

The second component is anaerobic capacity and power. Let's look at how anaerobic capacity and anaerobic power differ.

What is anaerobic capacity?

Anaerobic capacity is the ability of the body to produce energy in the absence of or without oxygen. It is the maximum energy that can be generated by the anaerobic systems. 

How do you train for it? Anaerobic capacity is developed through anaerobic training methods where maximal power (work per unit time) is developed during all-out, short-term physical effort. It reflects the energy-output capacity of intramuscular high-energy phosphates (ATP and PCr).

Watch the following video of the world’s fastest stair run to get an idea of what can be achieved through superior anaerobic capacity and power! The video demonstrates perfectly an example of anaerobic capacity. This individual is sprinting maximally up an incline for approximately 60 seconds. His anaerobic power (ATP-PC system) carried him up for the first 10 seconds after which it’s his anaerobic capacity (glycolytic system) taking him to the top.

After watching this video do you think this individual has low, normal, moderate, or very high blood lactate? 

What is anaerobic power?

Power is the product of strength and speed or Power = Force x Velocity.

Power is also defined as the ability to exert maximum force in the shortest time. Watch the following video of Aleksey Lovchev’s 264 kg world record for a perfect example of anaerobic power (ATP-PC system).

What is aerobic capacity? Aerobic capacity is the maximum amount of physiological work an individual can do when measured by oxygen consumption and use. This is the volume of oxygen you can consume and use while exercising at your maximum capacity. VO₂max is the maximum amount of oxygen in millilitres, that one can use in one minute per kilogram of body weight (ml/kg/min).

How do you train for it? Aerobic training methods will develop a client's aerobic capacity.

The following table shows the norms for aerobic capacities (for example, low, good, athletic Olympic) for women and men across different age groups.

Watch the following video to learn more about the V0₂ max test and benchmarks for physical performance.

Muscular endurance is the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to sustain repeated contractions against a resistance for an extended period of time. How would you test muscular endurance? The following video demonstrates a sit-up test. 

There are specific aspects of muscular endurance:

• speed
• cognitive reaction time
• agility
• balance
• flexibility.

Speed

Speed is the capacity to move or travel quickly over a given distance. Mechanically, it means the ratio between distance and time, shown as Speed = distance divided by time.

Speed involves a lot of specialist skill, drill and technique based training. Before a client can improve their speed it is important to consider the other components of fitness which are 'prerequisite' training blocks for developing speed. These training blocks are:

• basic aerobic and muscle endurance
• strength
• power.

It’s a bit like learning math, if you haven't developed your skill with the easy stuff you will never understand the harder stuff!

Think about speed ability as you watch a re-run of one of Usain Bolt’s world records. The short video explains the fascinating science behind sprint running and the magic of Usain Bolt's use of power.

In sport, speed can be further broken down into three elements:

• reaction time
• frequency of movement per time unit
• speed over a given distance.

Cognitive reaction time

What is it? Reaction time is the interval time between the presentation of a stimulus and the initiation (start) of the muscular response to that stimulus. A primary factor affecting a response is the number of possible stimuli, each requiring their own response. Stimulus can also be expressed as a process:

1. Stimulus presented
2. Stimulus received
3. Nervous system responds
4. Muscle action produced.

The following illustration breaks down the time in milliseconds (ms) of a batter hitting a ball. It starts from the time the light from the ball reaches the eye (0 ms), the time a baseball batter sees a ball (50 ms) to the decision to swing the bat (125 ms) to the time the bat crosses the plate (300 ms).

The following video explains the importance of reaction time for professional baseball players and how hand/eye progression can be developed. 

Agility

What is it?  Agility is the ability to start, stop and move the body in all directions quickly. It is a combination of speed, power, balance, and coordination to change the direction of speed.

Agility can also be expressed as Cognitive reaction time x change or direction.

Like speed training, agility training involves specialist skill, drill and technique training. As with speed, agility training has training blocks leading to agility development. These are:

• endurance
• strength
• power 
• Speed.

Speed and agility guidelines

The following table outlines guidelines for speed and agility training.

While your clients may never aspire to the skills of a Border Collie, the following video provides an entertaining demonstration of agility combined with speed to a degree beyond what could be achieved by a person.

Balance

Balance is a biological system that enables a person to know where their bodies are in the environment and to maintain the position they require/desire. In other words, it is the ability to control the body's position, either stationary (for example, a stretching position) or while moving (for example, a gymnastics move) and described as either:

• Static balance: ability to retain the centre of mass above the base of support in a stationary position
• Dynamic balance: ability to maintain balance under changing conditions of body movement.

Flexibility

 In simple terms, flexibility is the range of movements around a body joint. The following image shows the range of movement (flexibility) in an elbow joint, which can range from 10 degrees or less (hyperextension) to 140 degrees. 

Lock in your knowledge

Can you define each of the fitness components? If not, revisit the learning and write (in your own words) definitions you could use to explain the concepts to a client. 

We will now explore what is meant by an acute training variable and how to use the FITT method to address training variables in a training programme.

In simple terms, an acute training variable is a part of the exercise session that can be manipulated ‘acutely’ or as part of every individual training session. In order to progress or overload a client, you must consistently manipulate some acute training variables to place additional stress or recovery on the body. The most important acute training variables are listed below as part of the FITT acronym.

These are the four elements you need to think about to create workouts that fit your goals and fitness level or those of your clients. Let’s look at each of these:

• Principle 1: Frequency
• Principle 2: Intensity
• Principle 3: Type
• Principle 4: Time

Principle 1: Frequency

The frequency of training refers to the number of exercises within a time period (usually one week).

The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) recommends three to five sessions a week is enough to induce beneficial cardiovascular and muscular adaptations

Training may be as frequent as six to seven times per week depending on the training age of the athlete. The law of ‘diminishing returns’ however, states that there comes a point where increased training does not result in significant training adaptations. It is always better to start with three exercise sessions and build up gradually.

There are a number of factors which can determine how many times per week someone should train, these include:

• type of exercises used
• number of muscle groups trained per session
• structure of the program (volume and intensity)
• clients training status and overall fitness
• clients work schedule, social and family commitments
• how mentally prepared or motivated a client is to undertake a training program.

Training status

Below is a rough guide of the different training status’ of clients. These can vary slightly from individual to individual; however, the general rule of thumb is:

Frequency will depend on the resistance training status of the individual:

Advanced

Easier classified not on time as per the others but on their skill and technique development. This usually takes years. Typically, advanced clients will have already mastered the techniques to near perfection.

Easier classified not on time as per the others but on their skill and technique development. This usually takes years. Typically, advanced clients will have already mastered the techniques to near perfection.

• Beginner: Some new to training/exercising. Someone who has not consistently trained regularly and/or achieved results for six months or more. Someone who is new to an exercise type, for example, bodybuilder wishing to focus on their cardio (chances are this is a new training focus for them).
• Intermediate: Has been training consistently and regularly for six months or more. They have built up basic strength, skill in their program, and also borderline mastered their technique in these.
• Advanced: Easier classified not on time as per the others but on their skill and technique development. This usually takes years. Typically, advanced clients will have already mastered the techniques to near perfection, clearly understand the rationale behind their program and technique, and are very close to, if not already, achieving their maximum natural potential. This category typically sees the least amount of people.

Training guidelines

Training status	Training mode/sessions per week
Beginner	Resistance training: 2-3 per week
Beginner	Aerobic: 2 days ON, 5 days OFF, 3 days ON, 4 days off
Intermediate	Resistance training: 3 if using full body, 4 if using split routine
Intermediate	Aerobic: 4 days ON, 3 days OFF, 5 days ON, 2 days OFF
Advanced	Resistance: 4-6 days per week
Advanced	Aerobic: 6 days ON, 1 day off

The following figure shows the inverse relationship of intensity to volume and intensity. In a nutshell:

• Low-intensity exercise (such as walking) equals more volume and frequency at a lower intensity
• High-intensity exercise (such as running or using a stairclimbing machine) equals more intensity, lower volume, and frequency.

Principle 2: Intensity

Intensity is the second rule in the FITT principle. Exercise intensity is simply how ‘hard’ you are pushing yourself. It can relate to the speed of efforts, weight lifted, time to complete a task in, or how much rest you gave yourself.

How is intensity measured? As a personal trainer, you need to be aware of intensity tests, especially if you have an elite athlete as a client or who is a visitor to the gym. Intensity can be measured in a number of ways. We will look at seven methods:

• Method 1: Age predicted max heart rate percentage (APMHR)
• Method 2: Heart rate reserve
• Method 3: VO2max (oxygen consumption)
• Method 4: Metabolic equivalent (METs)
• Method 5: Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE)
• Method 6: Repetition maximum (%1RM)
• Method 7: Percent of maximal effort

Select the buttons for Description and Calculation for each method. This is important information so please read carefully.

Method 1: Age predicted max heart rate percentage (APMHR)

Learn about the APMHR test and its calculation.

Description

Heart rate (HR) is the most commonly used measure of intensity for cardiovascular exercise. It is easy to calculate and gives a fairly accurate measure of how hard the cardiovascular system is working.HR is not an accurate indicator of anaerobic intensity.

Calculation

Your HRmax can be calculated using the following estimation:

• HRmax = 220 – age 

This calculation is most commonly used when working with obese clients. The following adjustment HRmax = 200 – (0.5 x age) works well for older individuals.

Remember, an individual’s actual HRmax may vary by ±10 bpm from this estimation. There are different calculations for different athlete types and as science and technology increase, our knowledge of fitness calculations evolve. Your gym may require you to apply a specific calculation. 

Method 2: Heart rate reserve (HRR)

Learn about the HRR test and its calculation. We have provided a worked example of this calculation. This is important information so please read carefully.

Description

Heart rate reserve (or the Karvonen method) describes the difference between someone’s HRmax and HRrest (that is, the predicted maximum heart rate and measured heart rate). It has been shown to more accurately reflect the percentage of VO₂max that the client is working at than the HRmax method alone. A key component of an effective training programme is making sure your client is training in the correct training zone. This will increase their ability to achieve their training goals.

Note that this method also takes into account the changes in an individual’s resting HR as they get fitter.

Calculation

Heart rate reserve (HRR) can be calculated using the following formula HR_reserve= (HRmax – HRrest) + HRrest

Calculating resting HR is best done first thing in the morning when you wake up and before you eat and get moving for the day. Many fitness trackers will monitor your resting heart rate through the night.

Worked example

Let's take this one step further and calculate a client’s training zone. Let's say you want the client to work at 70% intensity. Firstly,  you need to calculate what is 70% for this client (the 'target heart rate' they need to achieve to reach the desired training zone). This is where we use the Karvonen formula which is often used to design a training programme. It is important that you are comfortable with this formula:

Target HR= [(HRmax- HRrest) X intensity %] + HRrest

For this, you need to know the age of the client and the desired training zone. You then use these details to calculate HRmax and HRrest and put this data into the equation above.

Let's practice by calculating the target heart rate required for a particular training zone for our client who is 62 years of age has a resting HR of 58 bpm. In this example our client needs to work at 75% of their Heart Rate Reserve: We know: 

• Age= 62
• HRrest = 58bpm

This allows us to start building this equation. Let’s go through this together, step by step:

1. Target HR= [(HRmax- HRrest) X intensity %] + HRrest
2. Target HR= [((220-62) -58) X75%] + 58
3. Target HR= [(158-58)* 0.75] + 58
4. Target HR=[100*0.75] +58
5. Target HR= 75+58 Target HR = 133bpm

Bingo! We now know that in order for this client to work at 75% of their HRR they are required to achieve a heart rate of 133 bpm.

Summary

Remember that when trying to calculate a formula like this there is an order you need to follow:

1. Calculate what numbers are in the curly brackets first
2. Multiply the numbers in the two square brackets together 
3. Lastly, do the addition of the resting rate.

Any other order will give you an incorrect HR number.

Method 3: VO_2max (oxygen consumption)

Learn about the VO_2max test and its calculation.

Description

VO₂ is the maximum amount of oxygen that your body can take in and use during physical activity. It is the size or power of your aerobic system to deliver oxygen to your muscles. The test and calculation is commonly performed (generally in a laboratory environment) to determine the aerobic endurance of an athlete at the beginning and during training.

Calculation

VO_2max is calculated by measuring the exchange of gas entering and leaving the lungs (basically the amount of oxygen going into the body minus the amount coming out). The VO₂max test begins at a light intensity exercise on, for example, a treadmill or bike, and gets slightly harder each minute until maximum exertion is reached.

Watch this video from the University of South Australia which demonstrates VO₂max testing of a client in the gym.

Method 4: Metabolic equivalent (METs)

Learn about the METs test and its calculation.

Description

A MET or 'metabolic equivalent' is one way to measure exercise intensity. A MET is typically a calculation or your metabolic rate while at work relative to your resting metabolic rate. Exercise science experts measure activity in metabolic equivalents or METs. One MET is defined as the energy it takes to sit quietly. METS can be classified as:

• light (<3.0 METS) such as walking, fishing, light housework)
• Moderate (3.0-6.0 METS) such as brisk walking, mowing the lawn, light cycling
• Vigorous (>6.0 METS) such as jogging, hiking, soccer)

Calculation

One MET represents the resting oxygen consumption, which is equivalent to 3.5 ml/kg/min.

This resting oxygen consumption can increase up to 20 times during maximal exercise in a trained individual (that is, VO₂max equal to 70 ml/kg/min). A 5-MET workload is equivalent to exercising at five times your resting oxygen consumption and would equal 17.5 ml/kg/min or easy exercise for most people.

The following video features the Move your MET app which some of your clients may find useful to use at home.

Study the following to compare the METs for home activities against sports and leisure activities.

Method 5: Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE)

Learn about the RPE test and its calculation.

Description

Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) is a subjective estimate made by the client of their current workload intensity. It is also known as the 'talk test'. It is an indicator to monitor and guide exercise intensity, typically from the client's perspective and can be modified to use with clients including the aged or those with specific diseases.

Calculation

The client is asked to rate their level of physical exertion on a scale of 1-10 (or 6-20 on the original scale), with 1 being no perceived exertion and 10 being maximal exercise. It is a subjective measure, but research as demonstrated that when asked, people do accurately score their level of exercise exertion.

As a trainer, you will use your observation skills when using this test. For example, take notice of the client's appearance and demeanour. For example, you have a young male client who has scored himself at a three. Yet, he is struggling to talk in sentences and is sweating heavily on his face. In this instance, you should use your judgment about the client's rating.

The following table describes what a scale might look like in a gym.

RPE Scale	Rate of Perceived Exertion
10 - Max effort activity	It feels almost impossible to keep going. Completely out of breath, unable to talk. Cannot maintain for more than a very short time.
9 - Very hard activity	Very difficult to maintain exercise intensity. Can barely breathe and speak only a few words.
7-8 - Vigorous activity	Borderline uncomfortable. Short of breath, can speak a sentence.
4-6 - Moderate activity	Breathing heavily, can hold a short conversation. Still somewhat comfortable, but becoming noticeably more challenging.
2-3 - Light activity	Feels like you can maintain for hours. Easy to breathe and carry on a conversation.
1 - Light activity	Hardy any exertion, but more than sleeping, watching TV and so on.

The following table provides an example of RPE used in a resistance training setting.

RPE Scale	Rate of Perceived Exertion
10 - Max effort activity	Could not do more reps or load.
9.5	Could not do more reps, could do slightly more load.
9 - Very hard activity	Could do one more repetition.
8.5	Could definitely do one more repetition, chance at two.
8 - Vigorous activity	Could do two more repetitions.
7.5	Could definitely do two more repetitions, chance at three.
7	Could do three more repetitions.
5-6 - Moderate activity	Could do four to six more repetitions.
1-4 - Light activity	Very light to light effort.

Method 6: Repetition maximum (%1RM)

Learn about the %1RM test and its calculation.

Description

When resistance training, the easiest way to quantify intensity is to use a percentage of your one-repetition max (%1RM). The %1RM that you use in a workout plan will depend on your training goals which generally include:

1. Muscular endurance (how many times can you lift)
2. Mass or bodybuilding (hypertrophy)
3. Strength (how much can you lift)
4. Power (how quickly can you lift)

Calculation

The 1RM can be determined with a maximal or multiple RM test.

The % value you use depends upon the goals of the session. For example, if the goal is muscular strength, a high %1RM will be used. If the goal is muscular endurance then completing more reps would be the focus. You test a client’s strength (1RM) on a bench press and they lifted a maximum load of 80kg. Your exercise prescription for improving muscular endurance requires them to lift a load of 65% 1RM for 15 reps.

80kg x 0.65 = 52kg for 15 reps

Method 7: Percent of maximal effort

Learn about the percent of maximal test and its calculation method.

Description

In some workout types, using HR or other methods may not work effectively. For example, in training the glycolytic energy system for a series of longer sprint efforts. Remember, you cannot use HR to measure intensity for any anaerobic sessions.

Calculation

In this example, let's say you want to develop your short sprint speed. To get optimal speed adaptations, you need to train at least higher than 90% of max effort for that sprint.

1. Let’s assume the workout is 10 x 20 m sprints at 92% of max effort. In your previous fitness testing, you did a maximal 20 m speed test and recorded a time of 3.10 seconds.

Training speed = max effort x training % → 3.10 seconds x 1.08 = 3.35 seconds

The workout would be: 10 x 20 m sprints @ 3.35 seconds with two minutes recovery

1. 2. Let’s calculate the same for bike sprints to train the glycolytic system. The workout asks for 6 x 30-second efforts at 85% of max. In your previous fitness testing, you did a maximal 30-second effort on the bike and averaged 700 watts.

Training intensity = max effort x training % → 700 watts x 0.85 = 595 watts

The workout would be: 6 x 30 second sprints @ 595 watts with 90 seconds recovery.

Principle 3: Type

The third rule dictates the type of exercise required to meet the program objectives. The type of exercise:

• should be specific to the client’s performance mode as well as practical (specificity principle)
• could be free or machine weights, treadmill or exercise bike, plyometrics or speed training, depending on the ability/proficiency of the client
• will often affect the intensity of the exercise stimulus, that is, treadmill running is often harder than biking due to body weight.

Generally, a program could include the following types:

• flexibility/stretching exercises
• yoga/pilates
• anaerobic exercises
• sprinting exercises
• weight training
• circuit training/cross training
• aerobic exercises
• HIIT training (high intensity interval training)
• Boxing/ combat training
• running, swimming and cycling.

The type of exercise you choose for a client will depend on factors such as the client's:

• biological age, training age, and experience
• interests and what the client enjoys doing
• exercise goals
• training specificity for a sport or activity
• previous or current injuries
• current conditioning levels
• weight
• special conditions.

Principle 4: Time

The duration of your exercise will differ greatly depending on how you train. As a minimum, it is recommended that people perform at least 20-30 mins of moderate exercise at least 3-4 times per week. This number will increase steadily as your fitness improves.

Time doing other exercise types, such as resistance training, will depend on the structure of the workout, how much rest you take and the intensity of the session. Remember the inverse law of duration and intensity, as one goes up the other must come down! The art of training is blending a good mix of intensity and volume/duration. This is called periodisation.

You will now do two activities to practice what you have studied on this topic.

1. Calculating an age-predicted max heart rate (HR) percentage
2. Using the FITT model.

Activity: Calculating an age-predicted max heart rate percentage

Imagine you have a client who is 55 years old and has a resting heart rate of 68bpm. Calculate 75% of their HR reserve. Compare this number with 75% of their age-predicted max AH (APMHR). Use the following formula:

75% of APMHR = ___bpm vs 75% of HR reserve = ___bpm Difference ___bpm which is ___%

In this topic, we focused on the components of fitness. You learnt:

• the fundamental components of fitness for effective and specific exercise programming
• how each component of fitness is trained and what is required for adaption to occur
• the practical implications of each component of fitness.